Introduction

Foreword

This site is a collection of notes taken from different books and online reference materials related to Japanese learning. The aim of this collection is to give an idea on how start learning the language and to be able to progress at some level.

Disclaimer

I am no by any means a language teacher so if there any doubts please do a cross-reference from other resources.

Version

Version 🆅.1

Scripts

There are 3 writing system used in Japanese namely the Kanji, Hiragana and the Katakana scripts.

Hiragana

Hiragana is a phonetic script used to represent Japanese sound.

Katakana

Katakana is a phonetic script used to represent Foreign loan words.

Kanji

Kanji was based on Chinese characters which represents a word and a meaning.

Level 1

Level 2

Level 3

Level 4

Level 5

Levels 1-5

Random-w

W/Meaning

W/Reading

W/Reading & Meaning

Words-Only

Meaning-Only

Reading-Only

Structure

Core

The Core elements of a sentence are the Main Carriage and Engine elements.

Initial carriage were introduced here as it sets the initial mood of the sentence which makes you sound more natural and not so boring. It also links up to the previous sentence or statement.

①　Initial Carriage

Provides initial or introductory information about the sentence
Includes the initial conjunctions, adverbial expressions, initial dependent clauses, etc

②　Main Carriage

Describes the subject of the sentence
Provides supplementary details about the engine on what action it does or the current state it is in
Includes the subject, object, modifiers, adverbs, etc

③　Engine

The driving force of the sentence
It does tell the kind of sentence on whether it is a nominal, adjectival, or verbal sentence 
Includes either a verb, an adjective, a noun or noun phrase plus copula, auxiliaries, particles, etc

Basic

Introduction of A - Main Carriage and B - Engine.

①　Verbal Sentence Verb as the engine

B describes the action/state of A

・A does B  
・花子さんが来た  
・Hanako-san ga kita  
・Hanako came

②　Adjectival Sentence I-Adjective as the engine

B describes A

・A is B 
・空が青い 
・Sora ga aoi 
・The sky is blue

③　Adjectival Sentence Na-Adjective (Adjectival Noun) as the engine

B describes A

・A is B + Copula 
・地下鉄が便利だ 
・Chikatetsu ga benri da 
・The subway is convenient

④　Nominal Sentence Noun as the engine

B defines/identifies/describes A

・A is B + Copula
・ジョンさんがアメリカじんです
・John-san ga amerika-jin desu
・John is an American

‘da/desu’ - copula

Compound

Compound sentences usually involves two or more simple sentences or clauses conjoined by conjunctions or connective form of verbs, adjectives or a copula. Compound sentences are usually connected through AND or BUT relation.

①　AND-Relation Connective forms of verbs, adjectives and copula

⚭　Sentence(I-Adj-Ending) + kute + Sentence

・この辞書は安くて便利だ
・This dictionary is cheap and convenient

⚭　Sentence(Na-Adj-Ending) + de + Sentence

・りなさんはきれいでやさしいです
・Rina-san is beautiful and kind

⚭　Sentence(Noun-Ending) + de + Sentence

・ウンさんは中国人でキムさんは韓国人です 
・Wong-san is Chinese and Mr. Kim is Korean

⚭　Sentence(Vnoun-base-Ending) + Sentence

・私は朝六時に起き、夜十時ごろ寝る
・I get up at six in the morning and go to bed around ten at night

⚭　Sentence(Vte-Ending) + Sentence

・山田さんはラメンを食べてビールを飲む
・Yamada-san eats ramen and drinks beer

②　AND-Relation Conjunctive Particles

⚭　Sentence(V/I-Adj/(N/Na-Adj+Cop)-Ending) + shi + Sentence

・この事件はほぼ終息したし二度と起こることはない
・このバッグは大きいしねだんも手頃だしいいですよ

・This incident has more or less ended and will never happen again
・This bag is large and the price is reasonable and so it's good

‘shi’ particle - connects one or multiple reasons but not naming all of it

③　BUT-Relation Conjunctive Particles / Conjunctions

⚭　Sentence + ga + Sentence

・家内はフランス語を話せるが私が話せない
・My wife can speak French but I can't

⚭　Sentence + kedo + Sentence

・入ってもいいけどしずかにしてくださいね
・You can come in but please be quiet

⚭　Sentence + keredomo + Sentence

・あそびたいけれども宿題はまだ終わってない
・I want to play but I haven't finished my homework yet

Complex

Complex sentences usually include any of the following items below.
A more detailed explanations will be encountered along the way for each item.

①　Relative Clauses

⚭　Relative Clause + Noun

・私が昨日見た山
・これは友子が作ったケーキだ

・The mountain I saw yesterday
・This is the cake Tomoko made

②　Internal Sentences before ‘toiu’

⚭　Noun/Sentence + toiu + Noun

・富士山という山
・日本語は曖昧な言葉だという考えは珍しくない

・A mountain called Mount Fuji
・The idea that Japanese is an ambiguous language is not uncommon

③　Internal Sentences before Compound Particles (Pre-Nominal Form)

⚭　Noun/Verb + Compound Particle + Noun

・コンピュータに関する彼の知識は相当なものだ
・ここにこの仕事をするに当たっての注意が書いてある

・His knowledge of computers is quite impressive
・Here's a warning about doing this job

④　Nominalized Sentences

⚭　Sentence + no/koto

・よく休むことが必要です
・光子がピアノを弾いているのを聞いた    
・ひかるさんが今日は来ることを知らなかった

・I need to rest well
・I heard Mitsuko playing the piano
・I didn't know Hikaru-san was going to be here today

⑤　Embedded Interrogative Sentences

⚭　Sentence + ka + ..

・誰がそれをするかが問題だ
・いつ帰るかまだ決めていません

・It's just a question of who's going to do it
・I haven't decided when I'm leaving yet

⑥　Clauses before Adverbial Forms of Auxiliary Adjectives

⚭　Sentence + you ni/etc

Adverbial forms of Auxiliary Adjectives

・みんながよく聞こえるようにマイクを使ってください
・Use the microphone so that everyone can hear you well

⑦　Internal Sentences as Indirect Quotations

⚭　Sentence + toiu

・山田さんは漢字は難しくないと言っている
・Mr. Yamada says kanji is not difficult

⑧　Internal Sentences before Compound Particles (Pre-Verbal Form)

⚭　Noun/Verb + ni tsurete/etc

・人は年を取るにつれて記憶力が衰える  
・As people get older, their memory declines

⑨　Sentence-Initial Dependent Clauses

⚭　Sentence + temo/tara/toki ni/tame ni/etc

Represent such things as condition, time, reason, purpose and manner

・質問されてもだまっていてください
・小林さんが来たら知らせてください    
・私がそこにいた時には異常はなかった    
・私は日本留学するために日本語を勉強しています

・If anyone asks you any questions, please keep quiet
・Let me know when Mr. Kobayashi gets here
・There was nothing unusual when I was there
・I'm studying Japanese in order to study in Japan

Elements

Intial Carriage

Connectives

Connectives appear at the beginning of an independent sentence and indicate how that sentence relates to the previous sentence.

Types

① And

shikamo  ◦ Moreover, Nevertheless             
soremo   ◦ In addition to that                
sarani   ◦ Furthermore, Moreover              
sonoue   ◦ In addition                        
soreni   ◦ Besides, In additon, Moreover      
mata     ◦ In addition, Too, Also, Likewise   
sorekara ◦ And then, After                      
soshite  ◦ And, And then

② But

demo     ◦ But             
shikashi ◦ But             
keredomo ◦ But, However

③ Or

mata wa  ◦ Or, Otherwise     
soretomo ◦ Or, Or else       
arui wa  ◦ Or, Either.. or

④ Cause & Reason, Effect & Result and Situation & Result

sorede     ◦ Thereupon, Because of that, That's why
suruto     ◦ Thereupon, Hereupon        
dakara     ◦ So, Therefore              
sokode     ◦ So, Therefore               
shitagatte ◦ Therefore, Consequently    
sonokekka  ◦ As a result of that        
sonotameni ◦ Hence, For that reason

⑤ Change the Subject

tokorode ◦ By the way

⑥ Reason for Something

nazenara   ◦ The reason is

⑦ For Example

tatoeba ◦ For example

⑧ Paraphrasing

tsumari     ◦ That is to say, In other words     
you suru ni ◦ In short, I a word, To sum up 
kekkyoku    ◦ After all, In the end                 
toiuka      ◦ Or..should I say

Examples

① And

・彼女はフランス語が話せる。しかも流ちょうに話せる
・ちょっと話をしただけ。 それも小声で話ます  
・彼は料理を二人分も食べた。さらに、食後ケーキも食べた   
・あの人は頭がいい。そのうえ性格してもいい    
・小川さんは仕事が早い。 それに、正確だ  
・ノートパソコンは場所を取らない。また、持ち運びにも便利だ    
・8時まで日本語の宿題うおした。それから映画をみに出かけた    
・僕は駅前の喫茶店に行った。そしてそこで友達を待っていた

・She speaks French. Moreover, she's speaks fluently
・We talked for a monment.In addition to that we did it in a low voice
・He ate two portions of food. Furthermore, he had an after-dinner cake
・He's a smart guy. In addition, he's got a great personality
・Mr. Ogawa is a fast worker. In addition, he's accurate
・Laptops do not take up much space. Likewise, they are convenient to carry around
・I worked on my Japanese homework until 8 o'clock. And then, I went out to see a movie
・I went to a coffee shop in front of the station. And there I was waiting for my friend

② But

・彼は新しい、いい車を持っている。でもめったに乗らない
・手紙を出した。しかし返事はこなかった    
・二時間待った。けれども、一郎は姿を現さなかった

・He has a fine new car. But he almost never drives it
・I sent a letter. But no reply came
・I have waited for 2 hours. However Ichiro did not show up

③ Or

・手紙を書くか、または電話する
・車で行きますか。それとも飛行機で行きますか    
・この絵は彼が描いたのでしょうか。あるいはどこかから買って来たのでしょうか

・Either write a letter or make a phone call
・will you go by car? Or will you go by plane?
・Did he draw this painting? Or did he buy it from somewhere

④ Cause & Reason, Effect & Result and Situation & Result

・昨日は京都へ出張していました。それでうちにいなかったんです
・私が別れようと言った。すると彼女雨は泣き出した    
・日本語を勉強すると役に立つ。だから日本をしている    
・おじいさんが大学卒業の日。3000ドルくれた。僕は日本へ行くことにした    
・先学期はあまり勉強しなかった。したがって、成績も悪かった    
・彼は遅く起きた。その結果、バスに乗り損なった    
・そして次は私の番でした

・Yesterday, I was in Kyoto on business trip. That's why I wasn't at home
・I told her that we should break up. Thereupon, she started to cry
・If we study Japanese, it will be useful. So, I am studying Japanese
・My granfather gave me 3000 dollars on my graduation day. So I decided to go to Japan
・Last semester, I didn't study much. So my grades were bad
・He got up late. As a result of that, he missed the bus
・Then it was my turn

⑤ Change the Subject

・ところでじんじゃ神社をし知っていますか？
・By the way, do you know what a Shinto shrine is

⑥ Reason for Something

・なぜなら彼は病気だったからです
・The reason is because he was sick

⑦ For Example

・例えば、君は英語が好きですか
・For example, do you like English?

⑧ Paraphrasing

・金がない。つまり、貧乏なんです
・要するに彼らは間違っている    
・結局は金の問題だ    
・そんなことをするなんて、ほんとに馬鹿というか、困った人だ

・I don't have money. In other words, I am poor
・In a word, they are mistaken
・In the end, it's a question of money
・That he would do something like that means he's really a fool, or maybe I should say trouble maker

Adverbial Expressions

Adverbial Expressions usually appears in the beginning of a sentence

①　あいかわらず

as usual ◦ as always

・相変わらず彼は公園でランチを食べています
・As always, he is eating lunch at the park

② どうしても

by any means ◦ reason

・どうしてもぼういはチップを取りませんでした
・For any reason, the bellboy would not accept a tip

③ けっきょく

after all ◦ in the end

・けっきょくだれにもわかりませんでした
・In the end, it wasn’t understood by anyone

④ もちろん

of course

・もちろんみんなに伝えておきます
・Of course, I will inform everyone

⑤ もしかしたら

perhaps ◦ it may be that

・もしかしたら来ないかも知れません
・Perhaps, he might not come for all we know

⑥ なんて＋ adjective

how ◦ what (exclamatory)

・なんて可愛い子供でしょう
・What a cute child he is!

⑦ なるほど

indeed ◦ that’s right

・なるほどいい計画ですね
・Indeed, it is a good plan

⑧ せっかく

kindly ◦ with much effort

・せっかくためたお金を使ってしまって残念です
・With much effort saving the money, it was used up unfortunately

⑨ とにかく

anyway

・とにかく遅いですから帰りましょう
・Anyway, since it is late lets go home

⑩ とりあえず

for now ◦ fort the time being ◦ first of all ◦ at once

・取り敢えず社長の返事待ちましょう
・For the time being, lets wait for presidents reply

⑪ わざわざ

kindly ◦ especially

・わざわざここまでご案内下さってありがとう
・Especially guiding me this far, thank you

⑫ やはり

after all

・やはり会社の代理人して会議にしなきゃ
・After all, as the company’s representative

⑬ やっぱり

as expected

・やっぱり彼が来なかった
・As expected, he did not come

Sentential Topic

The topic of a sentence usually appears in the beginning of a sentence and is what the whole sentence is about. It often overlaps with the subject of a sentence, but it can be other parts of speech as well. Topics are marked by wa particle.

・わたしは出かけます
・週末は買い物に行きます    
・晩ご飯は、たいていうちで食べます    
・この問題に関しては、これ以上議論しても無駄だ

・As for me, I’m going out
・As for weekends, I go shopping
・As for dinner, I usually eat at home
・With regards to this problem, it is no use to discuss it further

Sentence Initial Dependent Clause

Initial Dependent Clause usually appears in the beginning of a complex sentence before the main clause.
Represent such things as condition, time, reason, purpose and manner.

・質問されてもだまっていてください
・小林さんが来たら知らせてください    
・私がそこにいた時には異常はなかった    
・私は日本留学するために日本語を勉強しています

・If anyone asks you any questions, please keep quiet
・Let me know when Mr. Kobayashi gets here
・There was nothing unusual when I was there
・I'm studying Japanese in order to study in Japan

Main Carriage

Subject

The subject of a sentence is the animate or inanimate entity that performs the action or undergoes the process denoted by the verb. If the sentence denotes a state rather than an action, the subject is what the predicate (verb, adjective or copula phrase) describes. Subjects are marked by ga particle.

・今夜は月がきれいですね
・さっき田中さんが来ましたよ

・The moon is beautiful tonight
・Mr/Ms Tanaka came just a little while ago

Object

Direct object

Direct objects are nouns and pronouns that are directly affected by the action of the verb. They are usually marked by o particle.

・私は友達にワインをあげた
・I gave my friend a bottle of wine

Indirect object

Indirect objects are nouns and pronouns to which/whom an action is directed. They are generally marked by ni particle.

・私は友達にワインをあげた
・I gave my friend a bottle of wine

Particles

Particles are short functional words that are attached to nouns and indicates its grammatical role.

①　Case Particles

Short functional words that indicates if the noun is the subject, object, indirect object or as noun modifier

が ⇢ Subject         
を ⇢ Object          
に ⇢ Indirect Object 
の ⇢ Noun Affiliation

・猫がいる
・手をさげる    
・週末におじいちゃんに会いに行こうよ    
・帰りの切符は買ったの？

・There is a cat
・Put your hands down
・Let's visit my grandpa this weekend
・Did you buy a return ticket?

②　Post Position Particles

Short functional words that follows a noun/pronoun expressing concepts such as time, manner, and location

で ⇢ at, in (place of action)
で ⇢ by, with (means)
に ⇢ at, to, for
と ⇢ with      
へ ⇢ to

・居酒屋でビールを飲む
・新幹線で京都に行こう    
・新宿に行きます    
・家族と公園にいく
・北海道へ行く

・Drinking beer at Izakaya
・Let's go to Kyoto by Shinkansen
・I'm going to Shinjuku
・I am ging to the park with my family
・I'm going to Hokkaido

から ⇢ from 
まで ⇢ until

・ここから出よう
・このバスは嵐山駅まで行く

・Let's go out from here
・This bus goes until Arashiyama Station

③　Conjunctive Particles

Short functional words that connect two or more clauses

と ⇢ and 
が ⇢ but 
し ⇢ and

・私は英語と日本語を話す
・ビーりは飲むが酒は飲まない   
・日本はきれいだし好きです

・I speak English and Japanese
・I drink beer but but don't drink sake
・Japan is clean and so I like it

けど ⇢ but      
から ⇢ because  
のに ⇢ although

・申し訳ないけど長居できないんですよ
・赤ん坊は今空腹だから泣いている    
・彼は若いのにしっかりしてるね

・I'm sorry, but I can't stay long
・The baby is crying because it's hungry now
・Although he is young, he is responsible

④　Sentence Final Particles

Short functional words that are attached to the end of an utterance and convey various speaker sentiments and attitudes

ね ⇢ confirmation, agreement               
よ ⇢ conviction, assertion                 
よ ⇢ soften warning, command, request      
か ⇢ interrogative                         
わ ⇢ weak assertive, volition              
ぞ ⇢ unswayed judgement, indicates command 
ぜ ⇢ unswayed judgement                    
さ ⇢ mark assertion, surprise               
の ⇢ informal question

・読んでくださいね
・とても面白いですよ    
・読めよ    
・行きますか    
・この部屋はちさいわ    
・いくぞ   
・この魚旨いぜ    
・僕も日本語が話せるさ
・わからないの？

・Please read it
・It's very interesting
・Read it
・Are you going?
・This room is small
・Let’s go
・This fish is tasty
・I can also speak Japanese
・Understand?

Demonstratives

Demonstratives are words that indicate entities to which a speaker is referring.

ko

kore this・this one
korera these・these ones
kono (+noun) this (noun)
koko here・this place
kochira this way・this direction
kouiu (+noun) such・this sort of・like this (noun)
konna (+noun) such・this sort of・like this・this kind of (noun)
konoyouna (+noun) such・this sort of・like this・this kind of (noun)
konnani this (much)・to this degree・like this・in this way
konoyouni in this manner・in this way・like this
kou in this way・thus・such

・これは本です
・これを見てくれ
・このペンは誰のです
・この雨の中を歩いてきたのですか
・ここから消えてくれ
・ここが私の通った学校だ
・ここまでは追ってこないだろう
・こちらへどうぞ
・こちらを向いてください
・こういうこと
・こういうふうにやるとうまくいくよ
・こんな大雪は珍しい
・こんな気持ちになったのは初めてだ
・このような話をどこかで聞いたことがある
・昔の夏はこんなに暑くなかった
・山手線がこんなに遅れることは珍しい
・このようにやってごらんなさい
・ラケットはこう持ってください
・いいかい, 説明書にこう書いてある

・This is a book
・Look at this
・Whose pen is this?
・Have you walked in this rain?
・Get out of here
・This is the school I went to
・They won't follow us this far
・This way, please
・Please turn around
・Things like this
・If you do it like this, it works
・Such heavy snow is rare
・I've never felt like this before
・I've heard stories like this somewhere before
・It wasn't always this hot in the summer
・It's rare for the Yamanote Line to be this late
・Try it this way
・Hold your racquet like this
・Listen! This is what it says in the explanation

so

sore that・that one
sorera those・those ones
sono (+noun) that (noun)
soko there・that place
sochira that way・that direction
souiu (+noun) such・that sort of・like that (noun)
sonna (+noun) such・that sort of・like that・that kind of (noun)
sonoyouna (+noun) such・that sort of・like that・that kind of (noun)
sonnani that (much)・to that degree・like that・in that way
sonoyouni in that manner・in that way・like that
sou in that way・thus・such

・それ以前
・それ以後
・それについては後で述べる
・その意気だ
・それは僕がなくしたその時計だった
・そこが困ったところなんだよ
・そこから先は言わなくてもいい
・そこまでは考えなかった
・そちらのを見せてください
・今からそちらへ伺います
・そちらの様子はいかがですか
・そういう場合には
・若者には時々そういうことがあるんだけど
・そういうわけさ
・そんなことを言ったら誤解されるよ
・そんな自分がつくづくいやになる
・そんなつもりじゃなかったんだ
・そんなに使ったのか
・そんなに寒くない
・ほんとにそうなんですか
・そう考えると
・わかりました.そうします
・そう言われればそんな気がしてきた

・Before that
・After that
・We'll talk about that later
・That's the spirit!
・It was that watch I lost
・That's where the trouble lies
・You don't have to tell me where to go from there
・I didn't think that far ahead
・Please show me that
・I'm on my way there now
・How are things going over there?
・In that case
・I mean, that's what happens sometimes with young people
・That's how it is
・You'll be misunderstood if you say that
・I hate myself for that.
・I didn't mean it like that
・You've spent that much?
・It's not that cold
・Is it really so?
・When you think about it
・I understand. I will do that
・That's what I thought when you said that

a

are there・that one there
arera those・those over there
ano (+noun) that (noun) over there
asoko over there・that place there
achira that way・that direction
auiu (+noun) such・that sort of・like that (noun)
anna (+noun) such・that sort of・like that・that kind of (noun)
anoyouna (+noun) such・that sort of・like that・that kind of (noun)
annani that (much)・to that degree・like that・in that way
anoyouni in that manner・in that way・like that
aa in that way・thus・such

・あれが今度の市長です
・あれは何の音だろう
・あれは何ですか
・あの山は何という山ですか
・あの後ずっと
・あの話はどうなってる?
・あそこまで競走しよう
・あそこのラーメン屋に入ろう
・普通あそこまで言わないよ
・あちらに見える山
・あちらが新製品でございます
・あちらの気候は日本より厳しい
・あんな正直な人
・あんな美しい絵
・私はあんなに偉い人は見たことがない

・That's the new mayor
・What was that sound?
・What is that?
・What is that mountain called?
・After all that time
・What's that story?
・Let's race up there!
・Let's go to that noodle shop
・They don't usually say that much.
・The mountain you can see over there
・That's the new product!
・The climate there is harsher than in Japan
・Such an honest man
・Such a beautiful picture
・I've never seen anyone that so great in my life

do

dore which・which one
dorera which・which ones
dono (+noun) which (noun)
doko where・what place
dochira which way・which direction・which one
douiu (+noun) such what・what sort of・like what (noun)
donna (+noun) such what・what sort of・like what・what kind of (noun)
donoyouna (+noun) such what・what sort of・like what・what kind of (noun)
donnani how (much)・to what degree・like what・in what way・no matter how
donoyouni how・in what manner・in what way・like what
dou in what way・ how about・how・no matter how

・ジョッキは、大、中、小のどれがいいですか
・ビールは、ジョッキとボトルとどっちがいいですか
・どの車がいいですか
・どの部屋がいいですかか
・どこから来たの
・今日はどこからですか
・対戦相手はどこですか
・どちらへお出でですか
・光と音とどちらが速いか
・お国はどちらですか?
・どういう風に
・どういう訳で
・それはどういう訳ですか
・いったいこれはどういうこと?
・その人はどういう性格の人ですか
・どんな人ですか
・今日はどんな具合ですか
・子供にどんな本を読ませたらいいでしょうか
・どんなに金があっても
・どんなに勉強しても
・どうなさいましたか
・どうしたの
・どう考えてみても
・どう考えてみてもそれはおかしいよ

・Which one do you like a large, medium or small mug?
・Which one do you prefer a mug of beer or a bottle?
・Which car would you like to buy?
・Which room would you like?
・Where do you come from?
・Where do you come from today?
・Where are the opponents?
・Where are you going?
・Which is faster, light or sound?
・Where is your country?
・In what way?
・For what reason?
・What is the reason?
・What is this all about?
・What kind of person is he?
・What kind of person are you?
・How are you feeling today?
・What books should I read to my child?
・No matter how much money you have
・No matter how much you study
・How can I help you?
・What's the matter?
・No matter how you look at it
・No matter how you look at it, that's not right

Nouns

Noun

Nouns are words which denote people, animals, places, things, or concepts.

Japanese nouns doesn’t conjugate it change it’s form. In order to form a past tense, negative form or other forms, a copula is attach to it in order to suffice.

Forms

Noun (Plain Form - Non Past)

・hana  ⇢   hana da

Noun (Polite Form - Non Past)

・hana  ⇢   hana desu

Noun (Plain Form - Past)

・hana  ⇢   hana datta

Noun (Polite Form - Past)

・hana  ⇢   hana deshita

Noun (Plain Form - Negative)

・hana  ⇢   hana ja nai

Noun (Polite Form - Negative)

・hana  ⇢   hana dewa nai
・hana  ⇢   hana dewa arimasen

Noun (Plain Form - Past Negative)

・hana  ⇢   hana ja nakatta

Noun (Polite Form - Past Negative)

・hana  ⇢   hana dewa nakatta
・hana  ⇢   hana dewa arimasen deshita

Noun (Connective Form)

・hana  ⇢   hana de

Noun(Connective Form - Negative)

・hana  ⇢   hana ja nakute
・hana  ⇢   hana dewa nakute

Pro-Nouns

A pronoun is a word that is used to replace a noun or noun phrase.

①　First Person
watashiI,me
boku(M)I,me
ore(M)I,me
watakushiI,me
atashi(F)I,me

②　Second Person
anatayou
kimiyou

③　Third Person
karehe,him
kanojoshe,her
ano hitohe,she,that person

Noun-Phrase

A noun phrase is a modified noun.
A word or groups of words that modifies a noun comes before the noun.

①　Demonstratives + Noun Referencing a noun

⚭　kono/sono/ano/dono + Noun → this/that/which Noun

⚭　kouiu/souiu/auiu/douiu + Noun → this/that/what kind of Noun

⚭　konna/sonna/anna/donna + Noun → this/that/what kind of Noun

・この本
・あの学生
・こんな辞書
・その時

・This book
・That student
・This kind of dictionary
・At that time

②　Specialized Noun modifying words Characterize a noun

⚭　arayuru + Noun → every possible Noun

⚭　iwayuru + Noun → so-called Noun

⚭　onaji + Noun → the same Noun

⚭　saru + Noun → the past/last Noun

・私たちはあらゆる問題を話しった
・彼はいわゆる立派な紳士だ
・同じ年の夫とは三円前に知り合った
・さる六月に私の姉は高校の教師と結婚した

・We have talked about all possible problems
・He's what we call a fine gentleman
・She met her husband of the same age three yen ago
・In June last year my sister married a high school teacher

③　Noun + Noun Affiliation/Characteristic/Apposition

⚭　Noun1 + no + Noun2 → Noun1’s Noun2/Noun2 of Noun1

・日本の山
・日本の政治
・最近の若者
・3時の電車に乗る
・ここの家の主人
・東京のアパートはとても高い

・Mountains of Japan
・Japan's politics
・Today's youth
・Catching the 3 o'clock train
・The owner of this house
・Flats in Tokyo are very expensive

④　Pronoun + Noun Possessing a noun

⚭　watashi/boku/ore + no + Noun → my Noun

⚭　watashitachi + no + Noun → our Noun

⚭　anata/kimi + no + Noun → your Noun

・私の車
・あなたの荷物
・私たちの家

・My car
・Your luggage
・Our home

⑤　Adjective(Proper) + Noun Describing a Noun

⚭　I-Adjective + Noun

・高い山
・新しい体験
・古い家屋

・High mountains
・New experiences
・Old houses

⑥　Adjective(Adjectival Noun) + Noun Describing a Noun

⚭　Na-Adjective + na + Noun

・きれいな山
・静かな朝
・柔軟な発想
・大変な問題

・Beautiful mountains
・A quiet morning
・Flexible thinking
・A serious problem

⑦　Adjective(Converted Adjectival Noun) + Noun Describing a Noun

⚭　Converted-Na-Adjective + (na) + Noun

・精神的な強さ
・理想的な男性
・政治的問題
・社会的責任

・Mental strength
・The ideal man
・Political issues
・Social Responsibility

⑧　Adjective(No Adjective) + Noun Describing a Noun

⚭　No-Adjective + no + Noun

・ピンクのフラミンゴ
・生のキノコ
・公の事実
・裸の真実
・本当の話
・最後の部分
・最初の出現

・Pink flamingos
・Raw mushrooms
・Public facts
・The naked truth
・The real story
・The last part
・First appearance

⑨　Adjective(No Adjective・Adjective-Stem・Adverbial Noun) + Noun Describing a Noun

⚭　No-Adjective + no + Noun

・近くのスーパー 
・遠くの町
・多くの機種

・Nearby supermarkets
・A far away town 
・Many models

⑩　Number + Counter + Noun Characterize a Noun

⚭　Number + Counter + no + Noun

・一つの地域
・レンズ一枚の価格

・One region
・Price per lens

⑪　Adverb + Noun Describing a Noun

⚭　Adverb-te + no + Noun

・全ての規制
・はじめての住居
・生まれて初めての体験だった

・All regulations
・Your first home
・It was the first time in my life

⑪　Adverb + Noun Describing a Noun

⚭　Adverb + (to) + shita + Noun

・ふとしたことから寺山修司をした
・しゃきっとした歯ごたえは暑い夏にも向く
・漠とした不安に襲われる

・By chance I got to know Shuji Terayama
・The crunchy texture is ideal for hot summer days
・I get vague anxiety

⑫ Onomatope + Noun (Onomatope as Noun Modifier) Describing a Noun

⚭　Onomatope + no/na + Noun

・ピカピカの靴
・パサパサの髪
・イライラの気持ち
・あつあつの食べ物

・Shiny shoes
・Dry hair
・Feelings of frustration
・Hot food

⑬ Noun + Particle + Noun Referencing a Noun

⚭　Noun + Particle + no + Noun

・先生からの手紙
・図書化での勉強
・駅までのバス

・Letter from the teacher
・Study in the library
・Bus to the station

⑭　Noun + Adjective/Verb + Noun Describing a Noun

⚭　Noun + ga/no + Adjective/Verb + Noun

・頭がいい人
・いい匂いがする魚
・説得力のあるコーチになるだろう
・背が高い女性が多くなっているのに対応したもの

・A smart person
・A fish that smells good
・He'll be a very convincing coach
・A response to the growing number of taller women

⑮　Relative Clause + Noun Providing information in relation to a Noun

⚭　Vta + Noun

・題した作品
・発達した筋肉
・安定した生活
・私が昨日見た山
・自立した証券会社は育たない

・A entitled work
・Developing muscles
・A stable life
・The mountain I saw yesterday
・No independent brokerage firm can grow

⑯　Internal sentences before compound particles (pre-nominal form) + Noun Providing information in relation to a Noun

⚭　Noun/Verb + Compound Particle + Noun

・日本語文法に関する論文
・この仕事をするに当たっての注意
・選手としての経歴はすごい
・このことについての大臣の考えは

・Articles in relation Japanese grammar
・Precautions for doing this job
・His career as a player is incredible
・The Minister's thoughts on this are..

⑰　Adverbial Clause + Noun Providing information in relation to a Noun

⚭　Clause-te + no + Noun

・お客さんあっての商売
・ザックを背負ってのベトナム一人旅
・それでも豊かさを求めての逃走は続く

・Customers are our business
・Traveling alone in Vietnam with a backpack
・Yet the flight to riches continues

⑱　Noun/Sentence toiu + Noun Providing information in relation to a Noun

⚭　Noun/Sentence + toiu + Noun → Noun named/called/that is Noun/Sentence

・富士山という山
・スズキという学生
・彼女の到着が一日遅れるという連絡が入った

・A mountain called Mt Fuji
・A student called Suzuki
・I was informed that her arrival would be delayed by one day

⑲　Sentence + Nominalizer Converting a sentence to a noun equivalent

⚭　Sentence + koto/no

・光子がピアノを弾いているのを聞いた
・よく休むことが必要です

・I heard Mitsuko playing the piano
・You need to rest well

⑳　Embedded Interrogative Sentences Providing information in relation to a Noun in a form of a question

⚭　Sentence + ka

・誰がそれをするかが問題だ
・読書がいかに大切かを教える必要がある

・It's just a question of who will do it
・We need to teach them how important reading is

㉑　Multiple Nouns Connecting Nouns

⚭　noun to noun (to) → Noun and Noun

⚭　noun ya noun (ya) → Noun, Noun among others

⚭　noun, noun, noun nado → Noun, Noun, Noun and etc

⚭　noun toka noun toka → Noun, Noun and so on

⚭　noun ka noun → Noun or Noun

⚭　noun, noun matawa noun→ Noun, Noun or Noun

・ぺんと本（と）
・寿司やラーメンやご飯（や）
・アメリカ,ドイツ,フランスなど
・天ぷらとかさしみとかうどんとか
・カタカナかひらがな（か）
・日本語,韓国語,または中国語

・Pen and book
・Sushi, ramen and rice
・USA, Germany, France, etc.
・Tempura, sashimi, udon...
・Katakana or Hiragana

Na-Adjectives

Na-Adjectives are adjectival nouns which describes other nouns and pronouns.

Structure

Na-Adjectives doesn’t conjugate it change it’s form. In order to form a past tense, negative form or other forms, a copula is attach to it in order to suffice.

Forms

Na-Adj (Plain Form - Non Past)

・genki  ⇢   genki da

Na-Adj (Polite Form - Non Past)

・genki  ⇢   genki desu

Na-Adj (Plain Form - Past)

・genki  ⇢   genki datta

Na-Adj (Polite Form - Past)

・genki  ⇢   genki deshita

Na-Adj (Plain Form - Negative)

・genki  ⇢   genki ja nai

Na-Adj (Polite Form - Negative)

・genki  ⇢   genki dewa nai
・genki  ⇢   genki dewa arimasen

Na-Adj (Plain Form - Past Negative)

・genki  ⇢   genki ja nakatta

Na-Adj (Polite Form - Past Negative)

・genki  ⇢   genki dewa nakatta
・genki  ⇢   genki dewa arimasen deshita

Na-Adj (Connective Form)

・genki  ⇢   genki de

Na-Adj (Connective Form - Negative)

・genki  ⇢   genki ja nakute
・genki  ⇢   genki dewa nakute

Na-Adj (Adverbial Form)

・genki  ⇢   genki ni

Na-Adj (Adjectival Form)

・genki  ⇢   genki na

List

I-Adjectives

Adjectives are words that describe nouns and pronouns.

Structure

Forms

I-Adj (Plain Form - Non Past)

・yasui  ⇢   yasui

I-Adj (Polite Form - Non Past)

・yasui  ⇢   yasui desu

I-Adj (Plain Form - Past Tense)

・yasui  ⇢   yasukatta

I-Adj (Polite Form - Past Tense)

・yasui  ⇢   yasukatta desu

I-Adj (Plain Form - Negative)

・yasui  ⇢   yasukunai

I-Adj (Polite Form - Negative)

・yasui  ⇢   yasukunai desu
・yasui  ⇢   yasukuarimasen

I-Adj (Plain Form - Past Negative)

・yasui  ⇢   yasukunakatta

I-Adj (Polite Form - Past Negative)

・yasui  ⇢   yasukunakatta desu
・yasui  ⇢   yasukuarimasen deshita

I-Adj.ad (Adverbial Form)

・yasui  ⇢   yasuku

I-Adj (Connective Form)

・yasui  ⇢   yasukute

I-Adj (Connective Form - Negative)

・yasui  ⇢   yasukunakute

I-Adj (Conditional Form - ba)

・yasui  ⇢   yasukereba

I-Adj (Conditional Form - tara)

・yasui  ⇢   yasukattara

I-Adj (Root)

・yasu

List

Adverbs

Adverbs are words that precede and modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, and even whole clauses.

Structure

① Adverbs Derivation

Adjective Stem ⇢ Adverb

・uma-i     ⇢ uma-ku     ◦ skillfully, well
・yasu-i    ⇢ yasu-ku    ◦ inexpensively, cheaply
・fuka-i    ⇢ fuka-ku    ◦ deeply, intimately
・haya-i    ⇢ haya-ku    ◦ early, soon, quickly
・sugo-i    ⇢ sugo-ku    ◦ awfully, very, immensely
・mijika-i  ⇢ mijika-ku  ◦ shortly, briefly
・kuwashi-i ⇢ kuwashi-ku ◦ in detail, fully

Na Adjective ⇢ Adverb

・kirei     ⇢ kirei-ni     ◦ neatly, carefully
・tokubetsu ⇢ tokubetsu-ni ◦ speacilly, particularlly
・taisetsu  ⇢ taisetsu-ni  ◦ carefully, with great care

No Adjective ⇢ Adverb

・hadaka ⇢   hadaka-de ◦ nakedly

Onomatope ⇢ Adverb

・chanto   ⇢ chanto   ◦ properly, deligently, exactly
・yoboyobo ⇢ yoboyobo ◦ shaky, unsteadily
・sukkari  ⇢ sukkari  ◦ completely, entirely

・yukkuri  ⇢ yukkuri(to)  ◦ slowly, leisurely
・pikapika ⇢ pikapika(to) ◦ sparkly
・furafura ⇢ furafura(to) ◦ shaky, unsteadily

Verbs ⇢ Adverb

・hajimeru ⇢ hajime-te ◦ first time
・kiwameru ⇢ kiwame-te ◦ extremely, exceedingly
・sugureru ⇢ sugure-te ◦ exceedingly

Verbs (Duplication) ⇢ Adverb

・osoreru ⇢ osoru-osoru ◦ timidly 
・kawaru  ⇢ kawaru-gawa ◦ in-turn
・miru    ⇢ miru-miru   ◦ as you look on

Nouns (Adverbial Nouns) ⇢ Adverb

These are used as an adeverb to express time

・ima     ⇢ ima     ◦ now 
・kyou    ⇢ kyou    ◦ today
・kinou   ⇢ kinou   ◦ yesterday
・ashita  ⇢ ashita  ◦ tomorrow
・asa     ⇢ asa     ◦ morning
・hiru    ⇢ hiru    ◦ noon
・yoru    ⇢ yoru    ◦ night
・haru    ⇢ haru    ◦ spring
・natsu   ⇢ natsu   ◦ summer
・aki     ⇢ aki     ◦ autumn
・fuyu    ⇢ fuyu    ◦ winter
・mukashi ⇢ mukashi ◦ old times

Nouns/Verbs + Compound Particle (Pre-Verbal Form) ⇢ Adverbials

Modifies, describes or gives more information about the verb it’s closely connected

・日本の文化について話す
・年を取るにつれて記憶力が衰える

・To talk about Japanese culture
・As one grows old one's memory fails

Types

② Different types of Adverbs

Adverbs of Manner

Indicates the way some action is being performed

・kirei    ⇢  kireini  ◦ neatly
・sukkari  ⇢  sukkari  ◦ completely
・yukkuri  ⇢  yukkuri  ◦ well
・massugu  ⇢  massugu  ◦ straightly
・choudo   ⇢  choudo   ◦ exactly
・hakkiri  ⇢  hakkiri  ◦ clearly
・mattaku  ⇢  mattaku  ◦ really
・chanto   ⇢  chanto   ◦ properly
・kichinto ⇢  kichinto ◦ accurately
・buji ni  ⇢  buji ni  ◦ safely
・sassoku  ⇢  sassoku  ◦ immediately

Adverbs of Degree

Indicates the degree to which the word it modifies

・motto    ⇢  motto     ◦ more, even more, further
・mottomo  ⇢  mottomo   ◦ extremely, most
・ichiban  ⇢  ichiban   ◦ most, number one
・daibu    ⇢  daibu     ◦ pretty, considerably
・hijouni  ⇢  hijouni   ◦ very, extremely
・hotondo  ⇢  hotondo   ◦ almost, mostly
・issai    ⇢  issai     ◦ entirety, (not) at all, never
・jitsuni  ⇢  jitsuni   ◦ really/very clever
・kanari   ⇢  kanari    ◦ considerably, fairly
・kekkou   ⇢  kekkou    ◦ quite, fairly, considerably
・kiwamete ⇢  kiwamete  ◦ extremely, exceedingly
・sukkari  ⇢  sukkari   ◦ completely, entirely
・taihen   ⇢  taihen    ◦ very, greatly, terribly
・totemo   ⇢  totemo    ◦ very, exceedingly
・sugoku   ⇢  sugoku    ◦ very, immensely
・takusan  ⇢  takusan   ◦ a lot, sufficiently
・ooini    ⇢  ooini     ◦ a lot, much, greatly
・wazukani ⇢  wazukani  ◦ a little, slightly
・zuibun   ⇢  zuibun    ◦ very, etremely, terribly
・sukoshi  ⇢  sukoshi   ◦ a little, a few
・amari-nai⇢  amari-nai ◦ (not) very much
・zenzen   ⇢  zenzen    ◦ (not) at all
・nakanaka ⇢  nakanaka  ◦ pretty, fairly
・maamaa   ⇢  maamaa    ◦ so-so

Adverbial Nouns of time and frequency

Indicates the time and frequency to which the word it modifies

・arakajime   ⇢ arakajime   ◦ beforehand, previously
・hajimeni    ⇢ hajimeni    ◦ firstly, first of all
・ima         ⇢ ima         ◦ now
・imanimo     ⇢ imanimo     ◦ any moment
・konoaida    ⇢ kono aida   ◦ the other day, lately
・konotokoro  ⇢ kono tokoro ◦ lately, recently
・mada        ⇢ mada        ◦ still, as yet, only
・mamonaku    ⇢ mamonaku    ◦ soon, shortly, in a moment
・mareni      ⇢ mareni      ◦ rarely
・mata        ⇢ mata        ◦ again
・mou         ⇢ mou         ◦ already
・mukashi     ⇢ mukashi     ◦ in the past
・saigoni     ⇢ saigoni     ◦ finally
・saikin      ⇢ saikin      ◦ recently
・saishoni    ⇢ saishoni    ◦ first, onset
・sakini      ⇢ sakini      ◦ ahead (of), first
・sakihodo    ⇢ sakihodo    ◦ a while ago
・sakki       ⇢ sakki       ◦ a moment ago
・suguni      ⇢ suguni      ◦ immediately
・sukoshi     ⇢ sukoshi     ◦ a little, a bit
・tabitabi    ⇢ tabitabi    ◦ often
・shibashiba  ⇢ shibashiba  ◦ frequently
・shocchuu    ⇢ shocchuu    ◦ always, frequently
・sudeni      ⇢ sudeni      ◦ already, too late
・tsugini     ⇢ tsugini     ◦ next to
・yoku        ⇢ yoku        ◦ often
・yagate      ⇢ yagate      ◦ shortly
・zutto       ⇢ zutto       ◦ all along, throughout

List

Onomatope

Onomatope is a word or group of words which have their meaning indicated by the sounds they mimic.

Inerrogatives

Nominalizer

Nominalization is the process of turning words/phrases into nouns/noun phrases that aren’t nouns.
The two nominalizers are no and koto.

①　noto~・~ing・that

no is use when referring to

A specific instance of an activity
A concrete or direct action
A personal or familiar knowledge
A back referral
Using perception verbs

A specific instance of an activity

⚭　Vru/Vta + no

・来年日本へ行くのは田中さんです 
・田中さんが日本へ行くのは来年です 
・この手紙を書いたのは誰?

・It is Mr.Tanaka will go to Japan next year
・It is next year that Mr.Tanaka will go to Japan
・Who wrote this letter?

A concrete or direct action

⚭　Vru + no

・これを持ち上げるのを手伝ってくれ
・お母さんが晩御飯を作るのを手伝う
・彼女が化粧するのを待つ
・彼女が買い物を終えるのを待っています
・子供がテレビを見るのが止めた
・友達が帰るのを止めた
・宿題をするの忘れた

・Help me to lift this
・I help my mom to cook dinner
・I wait for my girlfriend to put her make up on
・I'm waiting for her to finish her shopping
・I stopped my children from watching TV
・I stopped my friend to go home
・I forgot to do my homework

A personal/familiar knowledge

⚭　Vru + no

・田中さんは日本語を教えるのが上手です
・サッカーを見るのが好きです
・自転車に乗るのが嫌いです
・ピアノを弾くのが得意です
・ギターを弾くのが上手です
・お酒を飲むのが苦手です
・絵を描くのが下手です

・Tanaka-san is good at teaching Japanese
・I like to watch football
・I don't like to ride a bicycle
・I am good at playing the piano
・I am good at playing the guitar
・I am not good in drinking alcohol
・I am not good at drawing

A back referral

⚭　Vru + no

・日本語を話すのは難しいです
・運転するのは簡単です
・野球をするのは楽しいです
・漢字を覚えるのは面白くない
・こうやって振り返るのって面白いよね

・Speaking Japanese is difficult
・Driving is easy
・Playing baseball is fun
・Memorizing Kanji is not interesting
・Looking back like this is interesting

Using perception verbs

⚭　Vru + no

・彼が歩いているのを見た
・その人が私の財布を盗むのを見た
・僕はしずえが泳ぐのを見ていた
・白い車が走り去るのが見えた
・白い車が走り去るのが見えた
・田中さんがバイオリンを弾くのを聞いた
・音が崩れるのが聞こえます
・誰かが歌っているのが聞こえます
・家が揺れるのを感じた

・I saw him walking
・I saw that man steal my wallet
・I was watching Shizue swim
・I saw a white car drives off
・I heared Ms.Tanaka play the violin
・I hear a sound crumbling
・I hear someone singing
・I felt the house shake

②　kototo~・~ing・that

koto is use when referring to

A abstract concept or thinking
A significant knowledge or concept
A notable experience
A decision
A potential or ability
A nominalized Engine
Following a grammatical pattern

A abstract concept or thinking

⚭　Vru + koto

・娘に早く就職させることを考えた
・日本語では一つの漢字にの読み方があることを習った

・I thought about getting my daughter a job as soon as possible
・I learnt that in Japanese there are different ways of reading a single kanji

A significant knowledge or concept

⚭　Vru + koto

・毎日練習すること(は/が)大切です
・漢字をを伝教すること(は/が)必要だ   
・そんなことが可能なんだろうか

・It’s important to practice everyday
・Studying Kanji is necessary
・Is that really possible?

Following a grammatical pattern・A notable experience

⚭　Vta + koto ga aru

・日本に行ったことがあります
・寿司を食べたことがあります
・何度か日本食を食べたことがあります

・I have been to Japan
・I've eaten sushi
・I've eaten Japanese food a few times

Following a grammatical pattern・A potential or ability

⚭　Vru + koto ga dekiru

・日本語を話すことができる
・ギターを弾くことができる

・I can speak Japanese
・I can play a guitar

Following a grammatical pattern・A decision

⚭　Vru + koto ni suru

⚭　Vru + koto ni naru

⚭　Vru + koto ni kimeru

・私は来年小坂に転勤することになりました
・毎日漢字を十覚えることにしました
・彼は自分で行くことに決めた

・I has been decided that I will transfer to Kosaka next year
・I have decided to memorise ten kanji every day
・He decided to go by himself

Following a grammatical pattern・A nominalized Engine

⚭　.. + koto da/desu

・趣味は写真を撮ることです
・夢は世界中を旅行することです
・この料理の特色はいろいろな材料が入っていることです

・My hobby is taking photos
・My dream is to travel around the world
・The feature of this dish is that it contains various ingredients

Counters

Numbers

Numbers 1-10

・一　ichi
・二　ni
・三　san
・四　yon
・五　go
・六　roku
・七　nana/shichi
・八　hachi
・九　kyuu
・十　juu

Generic Counters

Counters 1-10

・ひとつ　　hitotsu
・ふたつ　　futatsu
・みっつ　　mittsu
・よっつ　　yottsu
・いつつ　　itsutsu
・むっつ　　muttsu
・ななつ　　nanatsu
・やっつ　　yatsu
・ここのつ　kokonotsu
・とお　　　too

Unit Counters

Time

・秒    byou         ◦ seconds
・分    fun/pun/bun  ◦ minutes
・月　  kagetsu      ◦ number of months
・月　  tsuki        ◦ number of months
・年　  nen          ◦ number of years
・時間  jikan        ◦ number of hours
・週間　shuukan      ◦ number of weeks

Numerical Value

・十　 juu   ◦ tens
・百　 hyaku ◦ hundreds
・千　 sen   ◦ thousand
・万　 man   ◦ ten thousand

Percentage

・割　 wari ◦ percent

Weight

・キロ　      kiro       ◦ kilo
・グラム　    guramu     ◦ gram
・ミリグラム　miriguramu ◦ milligram

Distance

・メートル　 metoru ◦ meter
・センチ　   senchi ◦ centimeter

Volume

・リットル   rittoru ◦ liter

Classifiers

Classification

・歳　sai            ◦ age
・匹　piki/hiki/biki ◦ pets
・頭　tou            ◦ big animals
・羽　wa             ◦ birds
・冊　satsu          ◦ books, album, magazine
・枚　mai            ◦ flat things
・回　kai            ◦ number of times
・階　kai            ◦ building floors
・個　ko             ◦ small objects, individual
・缶　kan            ◦ cans
・本　pon/hon/bon    ◦ cylindrical things
・人　jin/ri         ◦ person
・名　mei            ◦ person
・台　dai            ◦ machines
・日　ka/nichi       ◦ day
・月　gatsu          ◦ month
・年　nen            ◦ years
・席　seki           ◦ numbers of seats
・段　fudan          ◦ stairs, steps, drawers, layer
・時　ji             ◦ o’clock
・点　ten            ◦ points, mark
・杯　pai/hai/bai    ◦ liquid in glasses, bowls
・倍　bai            ◦ multiples, -fold as in “twofold"
・泊　haku/pąku      ◦ night stay
・軒　ken            ◦ buildings, houses
・番　ban            ◦ number (ex. no. 2 - ni ban)
・課　ka             ◦ chapter, lesson
・次　ji             ◦ stage, order, times

Ordinals

Suffix 目 ◦ め ◦ is added to indicate order

・3 杯目　◦ Third bowl
・3 回目  ◦ Third time
・1 軒目  ◦ First house/building
・4 個目  ◦ Fourth one
・2 人目　◦ The second person

・一列目の席   ◦ The first row seat
・一番目の子　 ◦ The first girl
・一つ目の信号 ◦ The first traffic light
・いくつ目の駅 ◦ The nth station (How many stations?)

Prefix 第 ◦ だい ◦ is added to indicate order

・第一課　   ◦ The first chapter
・第二期　　 ◦ The second term
・第二段階　 ◦ The second stage
・第一次産業 ◦ Primary industry
・第一次予防 ◦ Primary prevention
・第二次集団 ◦ Secondary group
・第二次製品 ◦ Secondary product

Adverbial Quantifiers

Adverbs

・多い　　　ooi      ◦ many
・少し　　　sukoshi　◦ a few, a little
・ちょっと　chotto   ◦ a few, a little
・たくさん　takusan　◦ a lot, plenty, many

Affixes

Prefix

A prefix is a short element that is attached to the beginning of a word to add an additional meaning to or to change the meaning of the word.

Suffix

A suffix is a short element that is attached to the end of a word to change the meaning of or to add an additional meaning to the word.

Time

Location

Engine

Nouns/Adjectives

Nouns or Adjectives as the Engine.

①　Nouns

・高橋さんが大学生です
・Takahashi-san is a university student

②　Noun Phrases

・のぶりさんがスマと野球選手です
・Noburi-san is a smart baseball player

③　Adjectival Nouns

・花は綺麗です
・The flower is beautiful

④　Adjectives

・カバンが安いです
・The bag is cheap

Verbs

A verb is a word that expresses the physical or mental activities carried out by the subject of a sentence.

Groups

GodanConsonant-Stem
In the dictionary form, Godan verbs may end with -u,-tsu,-ru,-mu,-bu,-nu,-ku,-gu,-su.

・買う・待つ・知る・読む・遊ぶ・死ぬ・書く・泳ぐ・話す
・buy・wait・know・read・play・die・write・swim・talk

IchidanVowel-Stem
In the dictionary form, Ichidan verbs all ends with either -eru or -iru.

・あげる・出る・晴れる・食べる
・to raise・to leave・to clear up・to eat

・きる・見る・落ちる・いる
・to wear・to see・to fall・be located

Irregular
There are only 2 irregular verbs in Japanese: suru(do), kuru(come).

・来る・勉強する・電話する
・to come・to study・to call

Types

Transitive
Transitive verbs are verbs that take a direct object. They express what an agent does.

・私はよく本を借ります
・父は新しい車を買った

・I often borrow books
・My father bought a new car

Intransitive
Intransitive verbs are verbs that do not take a direct object.
They express events, movements or the spontaneous changes undergone by the subject.

・昨日から新学期が始まりました
・台風で木が倒れた

・The new semester started yesterday
・Trees fell because of the typhoon

Classification

Stative

Stative verbs
Describes the state of a person, animal or thing.

・いる・いる・ある・できる・飲める
・need・to exist/have (animate things)・to exist/have (inanimate things)・can do・can drink (all potential verbs)

・公園にブランコがあります
・私は妹がいます

・There are swings in the park
・I have a younger sister

Active

Active・Durative・Continual verbs
Expresses actions that a person, animal, organization, etc. performs. I takes some time or duration to complete the action.

・食べる・飲む・歩く・走る・踊る
・歌う・泳ぐ・まつ・話す・聞く
・読む・書く・見る・泣く・教える
・見せる・使う・作る・笑う・休む
・飛ぶ・考える・会う・住む・勉強する

・eat・drink・walk・run・dance
・sing・swim・wait・talk・hear
・read・write・see・cry・teach
・show・use・make・laugh・rest
・fly・think・meet・live・study

・私は晩ご飯を食べました
・犬が吠えました

・I ate dinner
・A dog barked

Stative-Active

Stative-Active verbs
Can be either a stative or active verb.

・見える・聞こえろ・分かる・違う・似合う
・be visible・be audible・understand・differ・be suitable

Punctual

Punctual・Momentary verbs
Are events that takes place in a moment.
(1) Transition from one state to another
(2) Start of action or motion from static state
(3) Arrival of completion

・知る・死ぬ・入る・出る・咲く・空く・開く・閉じる・壊れる 
・散る・立つ・落ちる・倒れる・行く・来る・始まる・付く
・着く・届く・触れる・止める・終わる・座る・打つ・跳ぶ・寝る
・困る・乗る・上げる・もらう・疲れる・起きる・結婚する
・帰る・言う・忘れる・貸す・借りる・覚える・なる・ける・合う

・to realize・to die・to enter・to gout・to bloom・to be vacant・to open・to close・to break apart
・to fall/scatter・to stand up・to fall (from height)・to fall over ・to go・to come・to begin・to attach
・to arrive・to reach・to touch・to stop・to end・to sit・to hit・to jump・to go to bed
・to get in trouble・to get on・to give・to receive・to get tired・to wake up・to marry
・to go home・to say・to forget・to lend・to borrow・to remamber・to become・to kick・to match

Non-Volitional

Non-Volitional verbs The outcome of the action is not controlled by the subject in any case.
In onset, development and outcome are out of the subject´s control.
Usually does not take the volitional form, the imperative and potential form.
(1) Emotive
(2) Non-Emotive

・喜ぶ・悲しむ・怒る・嫌う・好む・困る・苦しむ
・できる・いる・知る・見える・聞こえる・分かる・違う・似合う・疲れる

・be pleased・be sad・be angry・hate・like・trouble・suffer
・can do・need・to know・be visible・be audible・understand・differ・suitable・get tired

Reciprocal

Reciprocal verbs
Takes the particle “to” for the direct object.

・結婚する・喧嘩する・会う・合う・打つかる・相談する    
・marry・fight・meet・match・bump into・consult

・親友と結婚する
・駅前で友達と待ち合わせる

・I'm marrying my best friend
・I’ll meet my friends in front of the station

Movement

Movement verbs
Use particle ni to indicate the destination of the movement.
Use particle e to indicate the direction of the movement.
Can take V~~masu~~ ni to express purpose.

・行く・来る・帰る・入る・出る・立ち寄る  
・go・come・return・enter・get out・stop by

・日本に行きます
・韓国へ行きます
・日本に勉強に行きます
・ご飯を食べに帰りましょう
・日本へ英語を教えに来ます

・I'm going to Japan
・I'm going to Korea
・I'm going to Japan to study
・Let's go home for dinner
・I'm coming to Japan to teach English

Active-Punctual

Active-Punctual
Can be either be a active or punctual verb.

・着る・取る・変わる・注文する
・wear・take・change・order

Etc

Vte + iru

Continuous-State・Existing-ConditionResultative

Describes the current state or condition of the subject due to consequence of past occurrence.

・いい天気です。空が晴れています
・妹は結婚しています    
・お店が開いています
・ドアがしまっていて入れない
・水槽の魚が死んでいる

・It's a beautiful day. The sky is clear
・My sister is married
・The shop is open!
・The door is locked and I can't get in
・The fish in the tank is dead

Continuous-ActionProgressive

Describes the progressive action that is taking place.

・弟は今勉強をしています
・私は今絵を描いています    
・昨日9時ごろバーで酒を飲んでいました
・けいが本を読んでいる
・母は今台所で食事の仕度をしています  
・父は貿易会社に勤めています

・My brother is studying now.
・I'm painting now
・I was in a bar drinking yesterday around nine o'clock
・Kei is reading a book
・My mother is in the kitchen preparing a meal
・My father works for a trading company

Habitual・RoutineRepititive

Describes a habitual or repeated action.

・あの店では新しい野菜を売っています
・弟は中学に行っています    
・お宅ではどんな新聞を読んでいますか
・健康のために毎日一時間ぐらい歩いています

・That vegetable store sells fresh vegetables
・My younger brother attends junior high school
・Which newspaper do you read?
・I walk for about an hour every day to keep fit

Vte + aru

Existing-ConditionResultative

Describes the current condition of the subject due to consequence of past occurrence. Transitive verbs are being used in this case. Indicates that the past occurrence was done by someone and not by you.

・戸が開けてある
・壁にカレンダーがかけてありますよ

・The door has been opened (by someone)
・The calendar has been changed on the wall

Forms/Endings

Endings are added to the end of verbs to create special forms which gives more a specific meaning or function.

Table

Forms

(❖) Vnai-Form (Negative Non Past Casual)

・kau     ⇢   kawanai
・taberu  ⇢   tabenai
・miru    ⇢   minai
・kuru    ⇢   konai
・suru    ⇢   shinai

(❖) Vnakatta-Form (Negative Past Casual)

・kau     ⇢   kawanakatta
・taberu  ⇢   tabenakatta
・miru    ⇢   minakatta
・kuru    ⇢   konakatta
・suru    ⇢   shinakatta

(❖) Vmasu-Form (Non Past Polite)

・kau     ⇢   kaimasu
・taberu  ⇢   tabemasu
・miru    ⇢   mimasu
・kuru    ⇢   kimasu
・suru    ⇢   shimasu

(❖) Vmasen-Form (Negative Non Past Polite)

・kau     ⇢   kaimasen
・taberu  ⇢   tabemasen
・miru    ⇢   mimasen
・kuru    ⇢   kurimasen
・suru    ⇢   shirimasen

(❖) Vmashita-Form (Past Polite)

・kau     ⇢   kaimashita
・taberu  ⇢   tabemashita
・miru    ⇢   mimashita
・kuru    ⇢   kimashita
・suru    ⇢   shimashita

(❖) Vmasen-Form (Negative Non Past Polite)

・kau     ⇢   kaimasen deshita
・taberu  ⇢   tabemasen deshita
・miru    ⇢   mimasen deshita
・kuru    ⇢   kurimasen deshita
・suru    ⇢   shirimasen deshita

(❖) Vdict-Form (Dictionary Form)

・kau     ⇢   kau
・taberu  ⇢   taberu
・miru    ⇢   miru
・kuru    ⇢   kuru
・suru    ⇢   suru

(❖) Vte-Form (Te Form)

・kau     ⇢   katte
・matsu   ⇢   matte
・shiru   ⇢   shitte
・kaku    ⇢   kaite
・oyogu   ⇢   oyoide
・hanasu  ⇢   hanashite
・shinu   ⇢   shinde
・yomu    ⇢   yonde
・asobu   ⇢   asonde
・taberu  ⇢   tabete
・miru    ⇢   mite
・kuru    ⇢   kite
・suru    ⇢   shite

(❖) Vta-Form (Ta Form)

・kau     ⇢   katta
・matsu   ⇢   matta
・shiru   ⇢   shitta
・kaku    ⇢   kaita
・oyogu   ⇢   oyoida
・hanasu  ⇢   hanashita
・shinu   ⇢   shinda
・yomu    ⇢   yonda
・asobu   ⇢   asonda
・taberu  ⇢   tabeta
・miru    ⇢   mita
・kuru    ⇢   kita
・suru    ⇢   shita

V1

Negative-Base

(❖) Godan Verb (Negative Base)

・kau     ⇢   kawa
・matsu   ⇢   mata
・shiru   ⇢   shira
・kaku    ⇢   kaka
・oyogu   ⇢   oyoga
・hanasu  ⇢   hanasa
・shinu   ⇢   shina
・yomu    ⇢   yoma
・asobu   ⇢   asoba

(❖) Ichidan Verb (Negative Base)

・taberu  ⇢   tabe
・miru    ⇢   mi

(❖) Irregular Verb (Negative Base)

・kuru    ⇢   ko
・suru    ⇢   shi

Forms

(❖) Vnai-Form (Negative Non Past) ⚭ Vn + nai

・kau     ⇢   kawanai
・taberu  ⇢   tabenai
・miru    ⇢   minai
・kuru    ⇢   konai
・suru    ⇢   shinai

(❖) Vnakatta-Form (Negative Past) ⚭ Vn + nakatta

・kau     ⇢   kawanakatta
・taberu  ⇢   tabenakatta
・miru    ⇢   minakatta
・kuru    ⇢   konakatta
・suru    ⇢   shinakatta

(❖) More Endings/Forms

V1.1

Passive-Form

(❖) Godan Verb (Passive・Receptive Form)

・kau     ⇢   kawareru
・matsu   ⇢   matareru
・shiru   ⇢   shirareru
・kaku    ⇢   kakareru
・oyogu   ⇢   oyogareru
・hanasu  ⇢   hanasareru
・shinu   ⇢   shinareru
・yomu    ⇢   yomareru
・asobu   ⇢   asobareru

(❖) Ichidan Verb (Passive・Receptive Form)

・taberu  ⇢   taberareru
・miru    ⇢   mirareru

(❖) Irregular Verb (Passive・Receptive Form)

・kuru    ⇢   korareru
・suru    ⇢   sareru

V1.2

Causative-Form

(❖) Godan Verb (Causative Form)

・kau     ⇢   kawaseru
・matsu   ⇢   mataseru
・shiru   ⇢   shiraseru
・kaku    ⇢   kakaseru
・oyogu   ⇢   oyogaseru
・hanasu  ⇢   hanasaseru
・shinu   ⇢   shinaseru
・yomu    ⇢   yomaseru
・asobu   ⇢   asobaseru

(❖) Ichidan Verb (Causative Form)

・taberu  ⇢   tabesaseru
・miru    ⇢   misaseru

(❖) Irregular Verb (Causative Form)

・kuru    ⇢   kosaseru
・suru    ⇢   saseru

V1.3

Causative-Passive-Form

(❖) Godan Verb (Causative Form)

・kau     ⇢   kawaserareru
・matsu   ⇢   mataserareru
・shiru   ⇢   shiraserareru
・kaku    ⇢   kakaserareru
・oyogu   ⇢   oyogaserareru
・hanasu  ⇢   hanasaserareru
・shinu   ⇢   shinaserareru
・yomu    ⇢   yomaserareru
・asobu   ⇢   asobaserareru

(❖) Ichidan Verb (Causative Form)

・taberu  ⇢   tabesaserareru
・miru    ⇢   misaserareru

(❖) Irregular Verb (Causative Form)

・kuru    ⇢   kosaserareru
・suru    ⇢   saserareru

V2

Noun-Base

(❖) Godan Verb (Noun Base)

・kau     ⇢   kai
・matsu   ⇢   machi
・shiru   ⇢   shiri
・kaku    ⇢   kaki
・oyogu   ⇢   oyogi
・hanasu  ⇢   hanashi
・shinu   ⇢   shini
・yomu    ⇢   yomi
・asobu   ⇢   asobi

(❖) Ichidan Verb (Noun Base)

・taberu  ⇢   tabe
・miru    ⇢   mi

(❖) Irregular Verb (Noun Base)

・kuru    ⇢   ki
・suru    ⇢   shi

Forms

(❖) Vmasu-Form (Non Past) ⚭ Vnoun + masu

・kau     ⇢   kaimasu
・taberu  ⇢   tabemasu
・miru    ⇢   mimasu
・kuru    ⇢   kimasu
・suru    ⇢   shimasu

(❖) Vmasen-Form (Negative Non Past) ⚭ Vnoun + masen

・kau     ⇢   kaimasen
・taberu  ⇢   tabemasen
・miru    ⇢   mimasen
・kuru    ⇢   kurimasen
・suru    ⇢   shirimasen

(❖) More Endings/Forms

V2.1

Masu-Form

(❖) Godan Verb (Masu Form)

・kau     ⇢   kaimasu
・matsu   ⇢   machimasu
・shiru   ⇢   shirimasu
・kaku    ⇢   kakimasu
・oyogu   ⇢   oyogimasu
・hanasu  ⇢   hanashimasu
・shinu   ⇢   shinimasu
・yomu    ⇢   yomimasu
・asobu   ⇢   asobimasu

(❖) Ichidan Verb (Masu Form)

・taberu  ⇢   tabemasu
・miru    ⇢   mimasu

(❖) Irregular Verb (Masu Form)

・kuru    ⇢   kimasu
・suru    ⇢   shimasu

V3

Dictionary-Form

(❖) Godan Verb (Dictionary Form)

・kau     ⇢   kau
・matsu   ⇢   matsu
・shiru   ⇢   shiru
・kaku    ⇢   kaku
・oyogu   ⇢   oyogu
・hanasu  ⇢   hanasu
・shinu   ⇢   shinu
・yomu    ⇢   yomu
・asobu   ⇢   asobu

(❖) Ichidan Verb (Dictionary Form)

・taberu  ⇢   taberu
・miru    ⇢   miru

(❖) Irregular Verb (Dictionary Form)

・kuru    ⇢   kuru
・suru    ⇢   suru

(❖) More Endings/Forms

V4.1

Command-Base

(❖) Godan Verb (Negative Base)

・kau     ⇢   kae
・matsu   ⇢   mate
・shiru   ⇢   shire
・kaku    ⇢   kake
・oyogu   ⇢   oyoge
・hanasu  ⇢   hanase
・shinu   ⇢   shine
・yomu    ⇢   yome
・asobu   ⇢   asobe

(❖) Ichidan Verb (Negative Base)

・taberu  ⇢   tabere
・miru    ⇢   mire

(❖) Ichidan Verb (Negative Base)

・kuru    ⇢   kure
・suru    ⇢   sure

V4.2

Potential-Form

(❖) Godan Verb (Volitional Form)

・kau     ⇢   kaeru
・matsu   ⇢   materu
・shiru   ⇢   shireru
・kaku    ⇢   kakeru
・oyogu   ⇢   oyogeru
・hanasu  ⇢   hanaseru
・shinu   ⇢   shineru
・yomu    ⇢   yomeru
・asobu   ⇢   asoberu

(❖) Ichidan Verb (Volitional Form)

・taberu  ⇢   taberareuu
・miru    ⇢   mirareru

(❖) Irregular Verb (Volitional Form)

・kuru    ⇢   korareru
・suru    ⇢   dekiru

V5

Volitional-Form

(❖) Godan Verb (Volitional Form)

・kau     ⇢   kaou
・matsu   ⇢   matou
・shiru   ⇢   shirou
・kaku    ⇢   kakou
・oyogu   ⇢   oyogou
・hanasu  ⇢   hanasou
・shinu   ⇢   shinou
・yomu    ⇢   yomou
・asobu   ⇢   asobou

(❖) Ichidan Verb (Volitional Form)

・taberu  ⇢   taberou
・miru    ⇢   mirou

(❖) Irregular Verb (Volitional Form)

・kuru    ⇢   koyou
・suru    ⇢   shiyou

V6

Te-Form

(❖) Godan Verb (Te Form)

・kau     ⇢   katte
・matsu   ⇢   matte
・shiru   ⇢   shite
・kaku    ⇢   kaite
・oyogu   ⇢   oyoide
・hanasu  ⇢   hanashite
・shinu   ⇢   shinde
・yomu    ⇢   yonde
・asobu   ⇢   asonde

(❖) Ichidan Verb (Te Form)

・taberu  ⇢   tabete
・miru    ⇢   mite

(❖) Irregular Verb (Te Form)

・kuru    ⇢   kite
・suru    ⇢   shite

V7

Ta-Form

(❖) Godan Verb (Ta Form)

・kau     ⇢   katta
・matsu   ⇢   matta
・shiru   ⇢   shita
・kaku    ⇢   kaita
・oyogu   ⇢   oyoida
・hanasu  ⇢   hanashita
・shinu   ⇢   shinda
・yomu    ⇢   yonda
・asobu   ⇢   asonda

(❖) Ichidan Verb (Ta Form)

・taberu  ⇢   tabeta
・miru    ⇢   mita

(❖) Irregular Verb (Ta Form)

・kuru    ⇢   kita
・suru    ⇢   shita

Special Topics

Conditional-Form

①　toif・when

⚭　Vdict + to

When the result of the condition can be predicted naturally
When the result is known to happen customarily
When the result occurs generally and repeatedly

・まっすぐ行くと学校があります
・朝起きると顔を洗います
・冬になると寒くなります

・If you go straight, you will find a school
・When I wake up in the morning, I wash my face
・When winter comes, It gets cold

(✖︎) It cannot be used if it includes speakers intention, judgment, permission, opinion, request and etc.

②　taraif・when

⚭　Vta + ra

When the result of the condition can be predicted naturally
When the condition and result occurs only once
When you express volition, requests, invitations, make suggestions
When you express hypothetical conditions

・まっすぐ行ったら学校があります
・明日雨が降ったら家にいます
・暇だったら山へ行きたいです
・何を買ったらいいですか
・よかったら食べてみてください
・コーヒーにしたらどう

・If you go straight, there is a school
・If it rains tomorrow, I'll stay home
・When I'm free, I want to go to the mountains
・What should I buy?
・You can try it if you want
・How about a cup of coffee?

(✖︎) It cannot be used if it is not chronological order

③　baif・when

⚭　Vcmd-base + ba

When the result of the condition can be predicted naturally
When the result occurs generally and repeatedly
When you express universal truth and customs
When you express to do something (should/wish)
When you are seeking advice (how to/when to/where to/whom/what to)

・まっすぐ行けば学校があります
・冬になれば寒くなります
・もっと勉強すれば日本語が上手なります
・もっと勉強すればよかった
・どうやって注文すればいいですか
・いつ申し込めばいいですか
・誰に聞けばいいですか
・いくら払えばいいですか
・何時に来ればいいですか
・新宿へどう行けばいいですか

・If you go straight, there is a school
・When winter comes, it gets cold
・If I study more, my Japanese will improve
・I should have studied harder
・How do I place an order?
・When do I need to apply?
・Who should I ask?
・How much do I have to pay?
・What time should I come?
・How can I get to Shinjuku?

(✖︎) It cannot be used if S2 includes something negative (S2 is usually a positive outcome)

④　nara

⚭　Vdict + naraif・if it is the case

When you express advice, requests, invitations
When you express S1->S2, or S2->S1
When you include what the other person said or thoughts is confirmed and used as condition

・頭が痛いなら寝た方がいいです
・お酒を飲むなら運転しません
・田中さんが行くなら私も行きます
・コンビニに行くならおやつ買ってくれませんか

・If your head hurts, you'd better get some sleep
・I don't drive if I'm going to drink
・If Mr. Tanaka is going, I'm going too
・If you're going to the convenience store, could you please buy me a snack?

(✖︎) It cannot be used if the results mere fact which occurs naturally

Compound Verbs

A compound verb is a verb that consists of two verbs creating a specific meaning.
Forms: (G1) V1~~masu~~ + V, (G2) V1te + V2, (G3) prefix + V1, (G4) V1(regard as one word)

komu

komuin・into・deeply

⚭　V~~masu~~ + komu

Creates an inward direction or
An action takes place deep in something or someone

・知らない男が部屋に入り込んできた
・昨日は風邪で寝込んでしまった
・彼は落とし穴に落ち込んだ
・彼はプールに飛び込んだ
・彼女は洗濯物を家の中に取り込んだ 
・彼らはコンクリートを型に流し込んだ
・雪解け水が山から川に流れ込んだ
・遅れていた乗客が機内に走り込んで来た
・ギターは弾き込めば弾き込むほど良い音になる
・電車の中で友達と話し込んで、駅を乗り過ごしてしまった
・ワニは人を川の中に引きずり込んだ
・窓が開いていたので、雨が降り込んだ
・彼は、自分の靴を磨き込んで、ピカピカにした
・私はマニュアルを何度も読み込んだ
・オリンピックを前に、選手たちは泳ぎ込んだ

・A stranger came into the room
・Yesterday I was completly put into sleep due to colds
・He fell into the hole
・He jumped into the pool
・She brought her laundry back into the house
・They poured the concrete into the mold
・The newly-melted slush flowed into the river from the mountain
・A delayed passenger came running into the cabin
・A guitar's sound gets better the more you play it
・I was talking with my friends on the train and missed the station
・The crocodile dragged the man into the river
・The window was open, and the rain poured in
・He polished his shoes, making them shine
・I read the manual over and over
・The swimmers drilled themselves in swimming ahead of the Olympics

ageru

agerudoing something for someone・completion・raising up・going up

⚭　Vte + ageru doing something for someone

Someone gives an action as a favor to someone not within the group
The status of giver and receiver is about equal

・靴をはかせてあげよう
・私はなおみさんに英語を教えてあげた
・田中さんはスミスさんに本を貸してあげた

・Let me help you get your shoes on
・I taught Naomi some English
・Mr. Tanaka lent Mr. Smith a book

⚭　V~~masu~~ + agerucompletion

Indicates completion

・論文をかき上げたら、連絡します
・私はたくさんの洗濯物を洗い上げた
・料理人は野菜を炒め上げた

・I'll let you know when I've finished my paper
・I washed up a lot of laundry
・The cook finished stir-frying the vegetables

⚭　V~~masu~~ + ageruraising up・going up

Indicates something raising up or going up

・消費の拡大は経済成長を上方向に押し上げる
・男は、近くにあった大きな岩を抱え上げ、投げ飛ばした
・彼女は大きな魚を釣り上げた

・An increase in consumption will push economic growth upward
・The man lifted up a nearby boulder and hurled it
・She reeled in a big fish

au

audo something together・do something to each other

⚭　V~~masu~~ + au

To do something mutually together

・喜び合ってくれる人、監視みあってくれる人が本当の友達だ
・二人は小さなことで言い合っていた
・この家庭では両親と子供がよく話し合う
・僕たちはお金を出し合って、アパートを借りている
・男女が公園の ベンチで抱き合っている
・剣士は互いに打ち合った
・子供たちは押し合った
・彼は店員に値引きを掛け合った
・私はニューヨークで彼と知り合った
・彼らは友達と手を取り合って喜んだ
・二人は向かい合って座った
・私の家は友達の家と向かい合って建っている
・私は昔の友達とばったり行き合った
・キミは、彼女と気持ちを分かり合う努力が必要だ
・喜びも悲しみも分け合うのが本当の友達だ

・People who rejoice and watch each other are true friends
・They were arguing over the smallest things
・In this family, parents and children talk a lot
・We jointly contribute money to rent an apartment
・A man and a woman are hugging on a park bench
・The kendoka struck each other
・The children pushed each other
・He tried to haggle with the shopkeeper to lower the price
・I first got to know him in New York
・They grasped their friends' hands and rejoiced
・The two of them sat facing each other
・My house and my friend's house face each other
・I happened to run into an old friend
・You need to try to understand each others feelings
・True friends share all of their joys and sorrows.

Verb Syl

0KN

1SKN&1S

2SKN&1S

3SKN&1S

1KN&2S

2SKN&1S

2KN&1S

3S2KN&1S

4S2KN&1S

2S2KN&2S

2KN&CM

Verb List

SVrbs

RVrbs

MVrbs

TVrbs

PVrbs

Copula

①　daInformal

②　desuFormal

③　dearuLiterary

Connective-Forms

①　Copula da → de

⚭　Noun/Na-Adj + de

・doubutsu   ⇢   doubutsude 
・kirei      ⇢   kireide

・ウンさんは中国人でキムさんは韓国人です 
・りなさんはきれいでやさしいです

・Wong-san is Chinese and Mr. Kim is Korean
・Rina-san is beautiful and kind

②　I-Adjective i → kute

⚭　I-Adj + kute

・yasui   ⇢   yasukute
・okii    ⇢   okikute

・この辞書は安くて便利だ
・あの家は大きくて美しい

・This dictionary is cheap and convenient
・That house is big and beautiful

③　Verb Verb → Noun-base form Verb → Te-form

⚭　Vnoun/Vte

・okiru     ⇢   oki
・taberu    ⇢   tabete

・私は朝六時に起き、夜十時ごろ寝る
・山田さんはラメンを食べてビールを飲む

・I get up at six in the morning and go to bed around ten at night
・Yamada-san eats ramen and drinks beer

Auxiliaries/Helpers

Auxiliaries or Helpers are attached at the end of a word or a sentence to give nuance.

Aux-Adj

rashii

rashiiseem・look like・apparently

⚭　V/I-Adj/Na-Adj/N + rashii + (da/desu)

(❖) The preceding sentence is the speakers conjecture base on what he has heard, read or seen

・杉本さんはもう帰ったらしいです
・このあたりはとても静からしいです
・その話は本当らしい

・Sugimoto-san seems to have gone home already
・It seems that this area is very quiet
・Apparently the story is true

⚭　N + rashii

(❖) Attached to a noun to describe likeness in inner characteristics

・男らしい男が好きだ
・今日は冬らしい寒い日です
・女らしい仕草

・I like a manly man
・It's a cold, wintery day today
・feminine/girly gesture

souda

soudaseem・look・look like・appear

⚭　V~~masu~~/I-Adji/Na-Adj/N + sou + (da/desu)

(❖) The preceding sentence is the speakers conjecture base on what he sees or feels

・雨が降りそうだ
・あの車は高そうだ
・あのステーキは美味しそうだった
・この辺りは静かそうだ

・It looks like it will rain
・That car looks expensive
・That steak looked delicious
・This neighborhood looks quiet

youda

youdaseem・look as if・look like・appear

⚭　V/I-Adj/Na-Adj+na/N+no + you + (da/desu)

(❖) The preceding sentence is the speakers conjecture base on what he sees in connection with logical reasoning and judgment

(❖) Expresses the likelihood of something or the likeness of something to something

・杉山さんはアメリカへいくようだ
・この問題は学生にはちょっと難しいようだ
・木村さんは昨日お酒を飲んだようだ
・ここは昔学校だったようだ

・It appears that Mr. Sugiyama is going to America
・This problem seems to be a bit difficult for students
・It seems that Mr. Kimura drank sake yesterday
・Looks like this place used to be a school

mitai

mitailooks like・seems・look

⚭　V/I-Adj/Na-Adj/N + mitai desu

(❖) Indicates that the information expressed by the preceding sentence is what the speaker sees

・おじいちゃんは散歩に行くみたいです
・青木さん会社を辞めたみたいですよ
・赤ちゃんが寝ているみたいだから静かにした方がいい
・彼女は猫みたいですね

・Grandpa seems to be going for a walk
・Mr. Aoki seems to have quit the company
・It looks like the baby's sleeping, so you'd better be quiet
・She looks like a cat

⚭　N + mitai

⚭　N + mitai + na + Noun

⚭　N + mitai + ni + Verb/Adj

(❖) Attached to a noun to describe likeness in appearance

・猫みたいな彼女が欲しい
・彼女はモデルみたいに美しい
・あの子はまるで犬みたいに食べる

・I want a girlfriend who looks like a cat
・She's beautiful, like a model
・That girl eats like a dog

tai

taiwant・would like

⚭　V~~masu~~ + tai + (da/desu)

(❖) Expresses a desire to something

・ケーキが食べたいです
・コーヒーが飲みたいです
・つめたい水が飲みたいです

・I want to eat cake
・I'd like some coffee
・I'd like to drink some cold water

(❖) Logical translation of the sentences

・(As for me), Cake is desirable to eat
・(As for me), Coffee is desirable to drink
・(As for me), Cold water is desirable to drink

(❖) Use particle o when indicating place of passage

・私は早くこの電車を降りたい
・私は公園を歩きたい
・鳥になって空を飛びたいです

・I want to get off this train
・I want to walk in the park
・I want to be a bird and fly in the sky

(❖) Use particle o when a passive verb was used i the sentence

・ジョンに顔面を殴られたい
・蛇に足を噛まれたい
・私は先生にこの絵を褒められたい

・I want to get hit at the face by John
・I want to get bitten at my legs by a snake
・I want to have this picture praised by my teacher

garu

garushow signs of

⚭　Vtai/I-Adj-i/Na-Adj + garu

(❖) Showing a sign of something

・子供が眠たがっている    
・和男はスポーツかーを欲しがった
・スーザンは一人でさびしがっています
・上田さんはアイスクリむを食べたがった

・The child wants to sleep
・Kazuo wanted a sports car
・Susan is alone and lonely
・Ueda-san wanted to eat ice cream

Aux-Verbs

ageru

agerudoing something for someone

⚭　Vte + ageru

(❖) Someone gives an action as a favor to someone not within the group

(❖) The status of giver and receiver is about equal

・私は信雄さんにネクタイを買ってあげた
・リマさんに英語を教えてあげました
・田中さんはスミスさんに本を貸してあげた

・I bought a tie for Nobuo
・I taught Rima English
・Mr. Tanaka lent Mr. Smith a book

kureru

kurerusomeone doing something for me

⚭　Vte + kureru

(❖) Someone gives an action as a favor to someone within the group

・父はカメラを買ってくれた
・母はケーキを焼いてくれた
・友達は日本語を教えてくている

・My father bought me a camera
・My mother baked a cake for me
・My friend is teaching me Japanese

(❖) When the main verb is intransitive don’t use ni rather use no tame ni as marker for recipient

・みんなは私のために働いてくれた
・Everyone worked for my sake

morau

moraureceive something from someone

⚭　Vte + morau

(❖) Someone receives some benefit from someone not within the group

(❖) The status of giver and receiver is about equal

・父にカメラを買ってもらった
・友達に来てもらいました
・木村さんは大野さんに車を貸してもらった

・I had my father bought a camera for me
・I had my friend come over for me
・Mr. Kimura had Mr. Ono to lend him his car

(❖) When the giver is of higher status than the receiver use itadaku instead of kureru

・私は先生に本を貸していただいた
・I had a teacher who lend me a book

Aux-Others

souda

soudaI hear that・I heard that

⚭　V/I-Adj/Na-Adj/N + sou da/sou desu

(❖) Indicates that the information expressed by the preceding sentence is what the speaker heard

・日本の肉はとても高いそうだ
・清水さんはお酒を飲まないそうです
・長澤さんは英語がとても上手だそうです
・キングさんは英語の先生だそうだ

・I heard that meat in Japan is very expensive
・I heard that Shimizu-san doesn't drink alcohol
・I heard that Ms. Nagasawa speaks very good English
・I heard that Mr. King is a teacher of English

kamo

kamomight

⚭　V/I-Adj/Na-Adj/N + kamo

⚭　V/I-Adj/Na-Adj/N + kamoshirenai

⚭　V/I-Adj/Na-Adj/N + kamoshiremasen

(❖) Indicates that the information expressed by the preceding sentence might happen or not

・そろそろ梅雨入りかもね
・これは無料じゃないかも
・週末は雪がふるかもしれませんね
・母は今頃寝てるかもしれません
・うちに財布を忘れたかもしれない
・今セールやってるかもしれない

・The rainy season might start soon
・This might not be free
・It might snow this weekend
・Mother might be sleeping rigth now
・I might have left my wallet at home
・There might be a sale going on right now

darou

darouprobably・guess

⚭　V/I-Adj/Na-Adj/N + darou/deshou

(❖) Indicates that the information expressed by the preceding sentence is not based on any particular info or evidence

・あのアパートは高いでしょう
・かこちんさんはスキーが上手だろう
・あの人は韓国人だろう

・That apartment probably expensive
・Kakocin-san is probably good at skiing
・That man is probably Korean

Conjuctions

Grammar

Particles

が

The general concept of ga particle is that it marks the main actor or the noun being described in the sentence.

①　Subject of the sentence

⚭　Noun + ga

・あそこに犬がいます
・今朝雨が降ります
・本がある
・紅葉がきれいです
・今日友達が来ます

・There is a dog over there
・It rained this morning
・There is a book 
・The color of the leaves are beautiful
・A friend of mine is coming today

②　Expresses desire, need, ability or option

⚭　Noun + ga + Vtai/Vpot

⚭　Noun + ga + suki/kirai/hoshii

⚭　Noun + ga + dekiru/wakaru/iru

・アイスクリームが食べたい
・英語が話せます
・すしが好き
・車がほしい
・やさいが嫌いです
・料理ができません
・この漢字の意味が分かりますか
・日本に行くにはお金がいります
・何か刺激がほしい
・他の仕事がやりたい

・I want to eat ice cream
・I can speak english
・I like sushi
・I want a car
・I don’t like vegetable
・I can’t cook
・Do you understand the meaning of this kanji?
・To go to Japan, one needs money
・I want some stimulus
・I want to do a different job

③　Ga follows an interrogative pronoun

⚭　Question-word + ga + verb/adjective/noun

・誰が来ましたか
・誰が本ですか
・どれがいいですか
・何が問題なのか
・背景には何があるのか

・Who came?
・Which is better?
・Whose book is this?
・What is the problem?
・What is in the background?

④　Modifying clause uses Ga instead of Wa

⚭　Noun Phrase + ga

・私が撮った写真です
・This is a photograph that I took

⑤　Ga follows a noun that describe by an adjective

⚭　Noun + ga + adjective

・空が暗いです
・部屋があつい
・公園お花がきれいです

・The sky is dark
・The room is hot
・The flowers in the park are beautiful

⑥　Ga with intransitive verbs

⚭　Noun + ga + verb

・電気が消えた
・ドアが閉まる

・The lights went off
・The door closes

⑦　Describing five senses

⚭　Noun (senses) + ga + verb

・いい匂いがする
・甘い味がする
・波の音がする

・It smells good
・It tastes sweet
・I hear the sound of the waves

⑧　Introductory Clause

⚭　desu + ga

・その点ですがもっと詳しく説明して下さい
・As for that point, please explain more in detail

⑨　But - conjunction

⚭　sentence + ga + sentence

・僕は一晩中考えたが名案は浮かばなかった
・I pondered all night but could not come up with any great ideas

⑩　Explanatory, Reasoning, Opinion, Request, Fetching Information

⚭　ndesu + ga

・もう一日休暇をとりたいんですが…
・I would like to take one more day of vacation..

は

①　Topic marker followed by comment or explanation

⚭　Noun + wa

・私は学生です  
・あの人は大山さんです  
・この本は難しいです

・I am a student
・That person is Oyama-san
・This book is difficult

②　Negative sentence

⚭　Noun + wa + .. ~nai

・私はいきません   
・私は車は持っていません
・野菜は食べていません

・I won’t go
・I do not have a car
・I am not eating vegetables

③　Emphatic particle

⚭　Noun + wa

・お金は僕が払うよ
・宿題はもう済んだ

・As for the money, I will pay for it
・As for the homework, I have already finished it

④　Contrastive sentence

⚭　X wa .. ga , Y wa

・英語はわかりますが中国語はわかりません
・I understand English but I don’t understand Chinese

を

①　Direct object of the verb(vt)

⚭　Noun + wo + .. + verb

・毎朝はパンと卵を食べます
・コーヒーを飲みましょう
・僕は一昨日フランス映画を見た

・Every morning I eat eggs and bread
・Let's drink coffee
・I saw a French moview the day before yesterday

②　Indicates place of passage

⚭　Noun + wo + .. + verb(walk/cross)

・あの橋を渡ります
・犬と一緒に公園を散歩しました
・鳥になって空を飛びたいです

・Cross that bridge
・I went walking in the park with the dog
・I want to be a bird and fly

③　Place of departure

⚭　Noun + wo + .. + verb(get off/out of/go out/leave)

・地下鉄を降りてバスに乗ります
・バスを降りて5分くらい歩きます
・仕事終わって会社を出ました
・トイレはこの部屋を出て左側にあります
・あなたは毎朝何時に家を出ますか
・明日ロンドンを発ってパリに行きます
・あなたはいつこの大学を卒業しますか

・I get off the subway and get on a bus
・I get off the bus and walk for about 5 minutes
・After finishing my work, I left the office
・Get out from this room and in the left hand side there is the toilet
・Every morning, what time do you leave the house?
・Tomorrow, I will leave London and go to Paris
・When will you be graduating from this university

に

The general concept of ni is indicating a contact.

①　Place of existence in・at・on

⚭　Place + ni + verb

⚭　Stative Verb: いる・ある

⚭　Verb-te + iru/aru: 暮らす・根ざす・残る・落ち着く・住む・泊まる・勤める・浮かぶ・横たわる・座る・立つ

・駅の前にデパートがあります
・私の家族は香港にいます
・机の上に本があります
・私たちは東京駅の近くに住んでいます
・見てごらんこの池にコイがたくさんいるよ
・大昔火星に水があったそうだ
・道に雪がたくさん残っています
・あそこに立っている男の人は今川さんです
・あの壁にかかっている絵は綺麗ですね
・庭に桜の木が立っている
・あなたはどこにお勤めてですか

・There is a department store in front of the station
・My family is in Hongkong
・There is a book on the desk
・We live in a place near Tokyo station
・Look, there are many carp in this pond
・They say that a long time ago, there water on Mars
・There is a lot of snow left on the street
・The man standing over there is Mr. Imagawa
・The painting hanging on that wall is beautiful
・There is a cherry tree standing in the yard
・Where do you work?

②　A point in time in・at・on

⚭　Time + ni

・昨夜12時に寝ました
・毎週金曜日にテストがあります
・今朝は5時半に家を出ました
・私は毎朝六時半に起きる
・日曜日に映画を見に行きます
・今年4月に日本へ来ました

・I went to bed at midnight last night
・There is a test every Friday
・I left the house at 5:30 this morning
・I wake up at 6:30 every morning
・I'm going to see a movie on Sunday
・I came to Japan in April of this year

③　Direction・Destination go to・come to・return to

⚭　Place + ni

・今晩友達が私の家に来ます
・渋谷に行きます
・毎日会社に行って働いています
・夜家に帰ってシャワーを浴びます

・My friends are coming to my house tonight
・I'm going to Shibuya
・I go to the office every day to work
・I'll go home at night and take a shower

④　Indirect Object・Recipient of Action in・on・to

⚭　Person/Object + ni

・友達に電話かけました
・太郎は花子に本を貸した
・私は妹にお金を少しやりました
・ここに名前を書いてください
・黒板に絵を描いた
・さあ、飛行機に乗る時間ですよ

・I called a friend
・Taro lent Hanako a book
・I gave some money to my sister
・Write your name here
・I drew a picture on the blackboard
・Come on, it's time to get on the plane

⑤　Source・Agent by・from

⚭　Person + ni + (passive・receptive verb)

・私は父に車を買ってもらった
・僕はアメリカ人に英語を教えてもらった
・私はすりに財布をすられた
・私は車に泥をはねられた

・I got/had my car bought by my father
・I got/had my English taught by an American 
・I got/had my wallet robbed by a pickpocket
・I got/had splashed with mud by a car

の

①　Relative position in・at・on

⚭　Noun + no + ue上・shita下・tonari隣・mae前・yoko横・ushiro後ろ・mukou向こう・sobaそば・naka中・aida間

・箱の中に猫がいます
・机の上にペンがあります
・テーブルの下に犬がいます
・駅の前にラーメん屋があります

・There's a cat in the box
・There's a pen on top of the desk.
・There's a dog under the table
・There is a ramen shop in front of the station

②　Possession of・with・belong to

⚭　Noun + no + Noun

・私の車
・父の靴
・波の音
・君の本

・My car
・My Father's Shoes
・Sound of waves
・Your book

③　Affiliation・Description of・by・noun’s noun

⚭　Noun + no + Noun

・学校の水泳クラブ
・鈴木さんの本
・彼女は社長の秘書です
・理科の先生です
・日本語の教科書です
・北海道の冬は寒いでしょうね
・秋田の海岸は綺麗ですね
・この紫の花はなと言いますか

・School's swimming club
・Book by Mr.suzuki/Suzuki-san's book
・She's the president's secretary
・A science teacher
・Japanese textbook
・Hokkaido’s winter must be cold, isn't it?
・The coast of Akita is beautiful
・What do you call this purple flower?

④　Informal question ? (rising intonation)

⚭　Noun + no + Noun

・明日来ないの?
・青森に行かないの?
・この手紙君が書いたの?

・You are not coming tomorrow?
・Aren't you going to Aomori?
・Was it you wrote this letter?

で

The general concept of de is setting a limit or a boundary.

①　Place of action at

⚭　Place + de

・学校で勉強する
・オフィスで電話をかける
・喫茶店でコーヒーを飲みました
・図書館で本を二冊借りました

・I study at school
・I make a phone call at the office
・I drank coffee at the coffee shop
・I borrowed two books at the library

②　Instrument・Means by・with・in

⚭　Object + de

・ナイフで肉を切ります
・漢字で名前を書きます
・電車でここへ来ました
・駅からバスで大学へ行きます

・Cut the meat with a knife
・Write your name in kanji
・I came here by train
・I take a bus from the station to the university

③　Ingredient・Material by・with

⚭　Object + de

・肉と野菜で料理を作りました
・きで机や椅子を作ります
・これはプラスチックでできた箱です
・それは粘土で作った器です

・I cooked with meat and vegetables
・Wood is used to make a desk or chair
・This is a box made of plastic
・It's a vessel made of clay

④　Amount of time・Time termination in・at

⚭　Time duration/Time + de

・もう二週間で夏休みになります
・この仕事は20分でできますか
・このコンサートは10時で終わります
・私のパスポートは六月できれる

・It will be summer vacation in two weeks
・Can this job be done in 20 minutes?
・This concert ends at 10:00
・My passport will expire in June

⑤　Cause・Reason beacuse・since・due

⚭　Noun + de

・病気で学校を休みました
・雪で電車が止まりました
・強い風でドアが開きました
・来週仕事こうべに意味ます

・I missed school because I was sick
・Because of the snow, the train stopped
・Due to strong wind, the door open
・Next week, I'll be in Kobe because of work

⑥　Cost at・for

⚭　Amount + de

・この本を十ドルで買った
・ハワイへはいくらで行けますか

・I bought this book for ten dollars
・How much does it cost for a trip to Hawaii

⑦　Quantity for a unit for

⚭　Counter + de + amount/number + desu

・そのりんごは二つで五百円です
・学生はみんなで１３０人です
・全部で千五百円でした

・Those apples are 500 yen for two
・There are 130 students all in all
・The total cost was 1,500 yen

と

①　Connect multiple nouns and

⚭　Noun + to + Noun + (to)

・今朝パンと卵を食べました
・冷蔵庫とテレビを買い物に行きました
・りんごとぶどうがテーブルの上にあります
・赤いりんごと緑のぶどうもテーブルの上にあります

・I had some bread and eggs this morning
・I went shopping for a refrigerator and a TV
・There are apples and grapes on the table
・Red apples and green grapes are also on the table

②　Doing together to・with

⚭　Noun + to

・昨日山下さんが奥さんとここへ来ました
・休みの日は子供と一緒に遊びます
・北山さんと色々話しました
・妹は会社の人と結婚します

・Mr.Yamashita came here yesterday with his wife
・I play with my kids on my days off.
・I talked a lot with Kitayama-san
・My sister is marrying someone from work

か

①　Either・Or

⚭　Noun + ka + Noun + (ka)

⚭　Vru + ka + Vnai + ka

・夏休み海か山へ行きます
・父か母と一緒に行きます
・鉛筆かボールペンで書いてください
・右のか左のか早く決めてよ
・行くか行かないかどっちなの
・飲むか飲まないかわかりません
・来るか来ないかわかりません

・I will either go to the beach or mountains on summer vacation
・I will go together with my father or mother
・Please write with pencil or ballpen
・The right one or the left one, Please decide immediately
・Are you going or not going, which is it?
・To drink or not, I don't know
・To come or not, I don't know

②　Question marker

⚭　Sentence + ka

・昨日はどうして来なかったのですか
・どちら様でいらっしゃいますか
・明日は行きますか
・どこか行きますか

・Why didn't you come yesterday?
・May I ask who this is?
・Are you going tomorrow?
・Are you going somewhere?

③　Uncertainty of action/situation

⚭　Question-word + Vplain + ka

・何時に終わるかわかりません
・いつ帰るかまだ決めていません
・誰に頼むかわかりません
・ここまでどうやって来たか覚えていません

・I don't know what time I'll be done
・I haven't decided when I'm going back yet
・I don't know who to ask
・I don't remember how we got here

よ

①　Informing・Conviction

⚭　Sentence + yo

・とても面白いですよ
・高かったよ
・静かだったわよ

・It's very interesting, I tell you
・It was expesinsive, you know
・It was quite, you know

ね

①　Seeking confirmation

⚭　Sentence + ne

・今日は寒いですね
・このラメンはとても美味しいですね

・Today, it's cold, isn't it
・This ramen is very delicious

Double particles

には

には target & emphasize

・春には桜が咲きます
・十時には帰ってくると思います

・In spring, the sakura trees bloom
・By ten o'clock, she should come back

にも

にもtarget & inclusion

・箱根にも日光にも行きました
・あそこにも人がいます

・I went to Hakone and also to Nikko
・There are people there too

とは

とは partner & emphasize

・よく母とデパートへ行きます。でも父とはあまり行きません
・I often go with my mother to the department sore but rarely go with my father

とも

ともpartner & inclusion

・ビルさんと話した。それから、キムさんとも話しました
・I spoke to Bill, and I also spoke to Kim

では

ではlocation & emphasize

・レストランでは食べません。会社の食堂で食べます
・I don't eat at restaurants. I eat at the company's cafeteria

でも

でもlocation & inclusion

・私がプールでも泳ぐ
・I will swim in the pool too

への

への direction & affiliation　

・秋田への旅行
・友達へのプレゼント

・Travel to Akita
・A present to a friend

での

でのlocation of action & affiliation

・居酒屋での飲み会
・Drinking party at Izakaya

との

とのpartner & affiliation

・彼女との結婚
・Marriage to my girlfriend

からの

からのorigin & affiliation

・お母さんからの手紙
・A letter from my monther

までの

までのdestination・ending & affiliation

・東京駅までのバス
・A bus until Tokyo station

Others

から

からorigin - from

⚭　place + kara

・来週国から父が来ます
・このバスは駅の前から出ます

・Next week, my father is coming from home (home country)
・This bus leaves from in front of the station

⚭　time + kara

・今晩8時からテレビを見ます
・銀行は朝9時です

・I will watch television from 8 o'clock tonight
・The bank opens at nine o'clock in the morning

⚭　person + kara

・この花は私の友達からです
・This flower is from my friend

まで

までend point of a duration or motion - until・up to

⚭　place + made

・この飛行機はロンドンまで行きます
・駅まで自転車で行きます

・This plane is going to London
・I will go by bicycle until the train station

⚭　time + made

・5時半まで会社で働きます
・9月まで日本にいます

・I work at the company until five thirty
・I will be in Japan until September

⚭　Number-Counter + made

・このホールは二千人まで入れます
・五枚までコピーしてください

・This hall can accommodate up to 2,000 people
・Please make up to five copies

⚭　Vru/Vnai + made

・飛行機が出るまでロビーで友達と話ていた
・私が行くまでうちで待っていてください

・I was talking to a friend in the lobby until the plane left
・Please wait at home until I get there

までにend point of a quick duration or motion - by・by the time・before

⚭　N/Vru/Vnai + made

・友達がうちに来るまでに、会社にメールを送ります
・明日の昼までに銀行に行かなきゃいけません

・I'll send an email to the company by the time my friend comes
・I have to go to the bank by/before noon tomorrow

だけ

だけlimitation - just・only・merely・that's all

⚭　Noun/Adj/Verb + dake

・ゆきさんだけ来ました
・魚だけを食べた    
・魚を食べただけだ    
・本だけを借りた
・本を借りただけです  
・この家は大きいだけです   
・あの人だけが私を理解してくれる   
・ちょっとだけお借りします   
・このお菓子はいろが綺麗なだけです    
・朝はコーヒーを一杯飲むだけです

・Only Yuki-san came
・I ate only fish
・I just ate a fish
・I borrowed only books 
・I just borrowed a book
・This house is just big
・Only he undestands me
・I'll borrow it for just a little while
・This cake is just pretty colors
・I just drink a cup of coffee in the morning

Combined Particles

Combined particles are short functional words which indicates grammatical relations between sentence elements or propositional relations between statements.

Structure

①　Prt. + Vte/Vn-base/Vru

・に関して・に関し・に関する

②　Prt. + Noun + Prt.

・のために・を中心に

③　Noun + Prt.

・次第で・上で

General Info

①　Preceding elements

Mostly compound particle marks only nouns; some compound particle marks verbs or sentences as well as nouns

②　Form

Combine particles appear in either pre-nominal or pre-verbal form

Pre-Nominal Form Modifying a noun

Noun/Verb + Compound Particle (Prt. + Vru/Vte+no) + Noun

Noun/Verb + Compound Particle (Prt. + Noun+no) + Noun

・将来についての夢を語った
・この仕事をするに当たっての注意がある
・コンピュータに関する彼の知識は相当なものだ  
・今外国人のための和英辞典を書いています

・He talked about his dreams for the future
・There's a caveat in doing this job
・His knowledge of computers is quite impressive
・I am writing a Japanese-English dictionary for foreigners

Pre-Verbal Form Modifying a verb

Noun/Verb + Compound Particle + .. + Verb

・人は年を取るにつれて記憶力が衰える  
・店員さんはお客様に対して丁寧な言葉を使います
・先生によって教え方が違う

・As people get older, their memory declines
・With the customers, the shop assistant uses polite language
・Depending on a teacher, the teacher method differs

Additional Notes:

Noun Modification (Pre-Nominal Form)

ni yoru + noun

✖ インターネットによる申し込む                
✔ インターネットによる申し込みをする

Verb Modification (Pre-Verbal Form)

ni yotte

✔ インターネットによって申し込む              
✔ インターネットによって申し込みをする

③　Topic marker

Some pre-verbal compound particles are followed by the topic marker は to introduce topical phrases

・にかけては・については

List

Grammatical Patterns

Usage

Beginner・Intermediate

Time Related

①　時 ◦ When

⚭　Vplain/I-Adj/Na-Adj+na/N+no + toki

Event takes place concurrently

Event occurs after the first action (Vta)

・母は本を読む時めがねをかけます
・私が結婚した時祖母は泣きました
・嬉しい時も寂しい時も私はよくこの音楽を聞きます
・地震の時はすぐに火を消しなさい
・子供の時田舎の小さな村に住んでていた
・暇な時にはどんなことをして過ごしますか
・東京にいた時はいろいろ楽しい経験をした
・家を出た時に忘れ物気がついた
・韓国へ行く時成田ででカメラを買いました
・韓国へ行った時南山タワーの前で写真を撮りました

・When my mother read books, she wears glasses
・When I got married, my grandmother cried
・When I am happy or sad, I often listen to this music
・When there is an earthquake, put out the fire immediately
・When I was a child, I lived in a small village in the country
・When it is your spare time, what do you do ?
・When I was in Tokyo, I had a lot of fun experiences
・When I left home, I realised I forgot something 
・When I went to Korea, I bought a camera at Narita Airport
・When I went to Korea, I took a picture in front of the Namsan Tower

②　ながら ◦ While doing (Verb)

⚭　Vmasu + nagara

Two actions perform simultaneously

Emphasis is placed on what is said after Vnagara pattern

Vnagara cannot usually use momentary verbs

The action is being performed only by a single presom

・私はいつも料理の本を見ながら料理を作ります
・毎晩父はビルを飲みながらテレビを見ます
・私はこれからも医者の仕事をしながらこの子を育てます
・私はアルナイトをしながら日本語学校に通っていた
・寝ながら小説を読むのが好きだ
・その辺でお茶でも飲みながら話しましょう
・母は鼻歌を歌いながら夕飯の用意をしている
・よそ見をしながら運転するのは危険です

③　前に ◦ Before doing (Verb)

⚭　Vru/N+no + maeni

Two actions, one is to be performed first

Action following pattern occurs first

・食事の前に手を洗いましょう
・寝る前に歯を磨きなさい
・私は日本へ行く前に少し日本語を勉強しました
・昨日会社に行く前に歯医者に行った
・旅行の前に風邪を引いた
・食事の前に軽く飲みませんか
・伺う前にお電話します
・試験の前に映画を見に行った

④　後で・後 ◦ After

⚭　Vta/N+no + atode/ato

One action or condition succeeds the other

Second action or condition comes after the first

When action or condition is continuing ato is used rather than atode

・食事の後で少し算法しませんか
・この薬は食べた後で飲みませんか
・このビデオあなたが見た後で私にも貸してください
・祭りの後ゴミがいっぱいだった
・祖父はみんなとお茶を飲んだ後ずっと本を読んでいます
・食事の前に軽く飲みませんか
・伺う前にお電話します
・試験の前に映画を見に行った

⑤　てから ◦ After doing (Verb)

⚭　Vte + kara

Two actions, one is to be performed first (first action)

Action following pattern Vtekara comes next & will be performed by the agent

Verbs expresses action should action after the pattern

・この仕事を全部やってからビルを飲みます
・新しい家を買うときはよく調べてから買いましょう
・先にお金を払ってから3番窓口に行ってください
・バスが止まってから席を立ってください
・先に風呂に入ってから食事にしおう
・仕事が終わってから遊びに行く
・日本に来てから経済の勉強を始めた
・夏休みになってから一度も学校に行っていない

⑥　てから ◦ After doing (Verb)

⚭　Vte + kara

This construction indicates the starting point of a certain change or continuing state

・私が日本に来てからもう３年たちました
・林さんがこの会社に入ってから会社の中が明るくなった
・タバコをやめてから体重が急に増えた
・赤ちゃんが生まれてから私は毎日とても忙しいです

⑦　ところです ◦ Phase of situation

⚭　Vru/Vteiru/Vta/Vteita + tokoro da/desu

Vru - About to (verb) ◦ Used usually with 今、ちょうど、これから

Vteiru - Midst of doing (verb) ◦ Action currently in progress

Vta - Have just done (verb) ◦ Used usually with 今、さっき、ちょっと前

Vteita - Have been doing (verb) ◦ Continuation of action from past til now

V tokoro da/desu indicates only a point in time following the action

・いいえ、これからするところです
・ちょうど会議が始まるところだ
・会場の用意をしているところです
・今、手紙を買いているところなので後で飲みます
・ええ、今ファックスを送ったところです
・今、帰ってきたところなの
・私もちょうどあなたに電話しよう持っていたところです
・三章まで読んだところで寝てしまった
・ご飯食べ終わったところにまり子が訪ねて来た

⑧　ばかりです ◦ Just did (Verb)

⚭　Vta + bakari da/desu

Used to express brevity (shortness of time) of the action

・今うちに帰ってきたばかりなのでもう見ましたか
・入社したばかりなのに毎日とても忙しいです
・日本に来たばかりの頃は日本語全然わかりませんでした
・うちには生まれたばかりの子犬が三匹います
・さっき着いたばかりです
・この間買ったばかりなのにテレビが壊れてしまった
・まだ3時になったばかりなのに外は暗くなってきた
・昼ごはんを食べたばかりです

⑨　間・間に ◦ During・While

⚭　Vru/Vteiru/I-Adj/Na-Adj+na/N+no + aida/aida ni

Aida - Throughout the time, Concurrently another action/condition happens

Aida ni - During the time remaining, Another action/condition happens

・私は夏の間ずっと北海道にいました
・両親が旅行をしている間僕は毎日食事を作りました
・兄がゲームしている間弟はそばで見ています
・夏休みに隣の家が賑やかな間は私も楽しい気分になる
・夏休みの間に引っ越ししたいです
・日本にいる間に1度富士山に登りたい
・暇な間に本棚を片付けてしまおう
・私がいない間に誰か来たのでしょうか

⑩　うちに ◦ During・While・Before

⚭　Vru/Vnai/Vteiru/I-Adj/Na-Adj+na/N+no + uchi ni

Expresses a notion that during a period of continuation, some unforeseen change occurred

Unless some does something before what comes ahead, the subsequent opposite state will make a realization

・独身のうちに、いろいろなことをやってみたいです 
・体が丈夫なうちに、1度富士山に登ってみたい
・タンさんが東京にいるうちにぜひ3人で食事をしませんか
・暗くならならないうちに家に帰らなければなりません 
・ふと外を見ると気がつかないうちに雨が降り出していた
・今は上手に話せなくても練習を重ねるうちに上手になる

Intermediate・Advance

Object of Action

①　について ◦ About

⚭　N + nitsuite`pre-verbal form`

⚭　N + nitsuite + no + N`pre-nominal form`

Express the meaning of ‘about or regarding something’

・この町の歴史について調べてみようと思っている
・あの人について私は何も知らない
・この日本文化史について話します
・今夜は国の教育制度について考えてみましょう
・この日本文化史についてのレポートは大変できている
・その点については全面的に賛成は出来ない
・事故の原因について究明する
・将来についての夢を語った

・I'm going to do some research about the history of this town
・I don't know anything about that man
・I'm going to talk about this history of Japanese culture
・Tonight, let's think about our country's education system
・This report about the history of Japanese culture is very well done
・I can't fully agree with you about that point
・I will investigate about the cause of the accident
・He talked about his dreams concerning his future

②　に関して ◦ About・Regarding・ In Relation to

⚭　N + nikanshite`pre-verbal form`

⚭　N + nikansuru + N`pre-nominal form`

⚭　N + nikanshite + no + N`pre-nominal form`

Express the meaning of ‘concerning something’ or ‘as to something’

・この問題に関してもう少し考える必要がある
・その事件に関して学校から報告があった
・本件に関しては現在調査しております
・その問題に関して質問したいことがある
・コンピュータに関する彼の知識は相当なものだ
・その事件に関しての報告はまだ受けていない
・地質学に関しての本を読んでいる
・車の修理に関してどうしましたか

・I need to think about this issue some more
・I got a report from the school about the incident
・We are currently investigating in relation this matter
・I'd like to ask you a few questions about that issue
・His knowledge regarding computers is quite impressive
・I haven't received a report in relation to that incident yet
・I'm reading a book about geology
・What did you do about repairing your car?

③　に対して ◦ Towards・Against・Regarding

⚭　N + nitaishite`pre-verbal form`

⚭　N + nitaisuru + N`pre-nominal form`

⚭　N + nitaishite + no + N`pre-nominal form`

Express the meaning of ‘toward something/state/event’

・私の質問に対して何も答えてくれなかった
・彼は女性に対しては親切に指導してくれる
・私の発言に対して彼は猛烈に攻撃を加えてきた
・砂3に対して1の割合で土を混ぜます
・学生一人に対して20平米のスペースが確保されている
・子供に対して短気を起こしてはいけない
・私の疑問に対する答えはなかなか得られない
・書画に対する造詣が深い
・店員さんはお客様に対して丁寧な言葉を使います
・お年寄りに対してもっと親切にするべきです

・He didn't answer in reagrds to any of my questions
・He's a kind mentor towards women
・He has been fiercely against my remarks
・Mix the soil at a ratio of 1 to 3 sand
・20 square meters of space is secured for each student
・Don't lose your temper with your children
・Answers to my questions are hard to come by
・Profound knowledge regarding calligraphy
・Shopkeepers use polite words towards the customers
・We should be more kind towards the elderly

④　に応えて ◦ In Response to・In Accordance with

⚭　N + nikotaete`pre-verbal form`

⚭　N + nikotaeru + N`pre-nominal form`

Taking action in accordance with nouns expressing question, expectation, hope

Express the meaning of ‘to realise something’

・両親の期待に応えて私はイギリスに留学した
・社員の要求に応えて労働時間を短縮した
・消費者のニーズに応えてわが社は新製品を開発した
・私の要望に応えて父はお昼ご飯にラーメンを作った

・In response to my parents' expectations, I went to England to study
・Reduced working hours in response to employees' demands
・In response to consumer needs, we have developed a new product
・In response to my request, my father made ramen noodles for lunch

Situational

Request

①　morau get・have

to receive, to take

⚭　Vte + itadakitai n desuga

⚭　Vte + itadakemasen

⚭　Vte + itadakemasu ka

⚭　Vte + moraitai n desuga

⚭　Vte + moraemasen ka

⚭　Vte + moraemasu ka

⚭　Vte + moraenai

⚭　Vte + moraeru

・写真を撮ってもらえませんか
・ぺんを貸してもらえますか

・Could you take a picture for me?
・Can I borrow your pen?

②　kureru give (me)

to give, to let (one) have

⚭　Vte + kudaimasenka

⚭　Vte + kuremasen ka

⚭　Vte + kuremasu ka

⚭　Vte + kurenai

⚭　Vte + kureru

⚭　Vte + kure

・日本語を教えてくれませんか
・Can you please teach me Japanese?

③　onegai please

request, favour (to ask), wish

⚭　O + Vnoun-base + negaishimasu

⚭　O + Vnoun-base + negaimasu

・これをお持ち願いします
・お立ち願います

・Please take this
・Please stand up

④　kudasai please

please (give me, do for me)

⚭　O + Vnoun-base + kudasai

⚭　Vte + kudasai

⚭　Vte

・お座りください
・漢字で書いてください  
・食べて

・Please have a seat
・Please write in kanji
・Eat

Wants

①　tai I want to・I would like to

⚭　Vmasu + tai

Expresses a person desire to do something (First person)

・僕は野球が見たい
・僕はラーメンが食べたい

・I want to watch baseball
・I want to eat ramen

②　tagatteiru Someone wants to・Someone would like to

⚭　Vmasu + tagatteiru

Expresses a person desire to do something (Third person)

・みきさんは車を買いたがっている
・三木は釣りをしたがっている

・Miki wants to buy a car
・Miki wants to go fishing

(❖) Exceptions
(1) In the paste tense
(2) In indirect speech
(3) In semi-direct speech
(4) In explanatory situation
(5) In conjecture expression

・和男はとても行きたかった
・一郎も行きたいと言っている  
・敏子は日本へ帰りたいそうだ 
・野村さんはあなたと話したいんですよ 
・丸山さんは紀子と踊りたいらしい

・Kazuo wanted to go so badly
・Ichiro says he wants to go, too
・I heard that Toshiko wants to go back to Japan
・Mr. Nomura wants to talk with you
・It seems like Maruyama-san wants to dance with Noriko

③　tehoshii I want you want to・I would like you to
③　temoraitai I want you want to・I would like you to
③　teitadakitai I want you want to・I would like you to

⚭　Vte + hoshii/moraitai/itadakitai

Expresses a person desire for someone to do something (First person)

Use teitadakitai when you want someone with higher status to do something

・私は子供達に私と一緒に住んでほしい
・私はあなたに英語を教えてもらおたい
・私は吉田先生に来ていただきたい

・I want my children to live with me
・I want you to teach me English
・I would like Prof. Yoshida to come

④　tehoshigatteiru Someone wants you to do・Someone would like to you to do
④　temoraitagatteiru Someone wants you to do・Someone would like to you to do

⚭　Vte + hoshigatteiru/moraitagatteiru

Expresses a person desire for someone to do something (Third person)

・アダムスさんはフランシスにこの仕事をしてもらいたがっている
・弘子さんは木村さんにこの花を買ってほしがっている

・Mr. Adams wants Francis to do this job for him
・Hiroko-san wants Kimura-san to buy these flowers

(❖) Exceptions
(1) In the paste tense
(2) In indirect speech
(3) In semi-direct speech
(4) In explanatory situation
(5) In conjecture expression

⑤　hoshii I want something

⚭　N + ga + hoshii

Expresses a person desire for something (First person)

・私は車が欲しい
・私は日本人の友達が欲しい

・I want a car
・I want a Japanese friend

⑥　hoshigatteiru Someone want something

⚭　N + ga + hoshigatteiru

Expresses a person desire for something (Third person)

・弟は僕の自転車をほし欲しがっている
・みちこさんはパソコンを欲しがっている

・My brother wants my bike
・Michiko wants a computer

(❖) Exceptions
(1) In the paste tense
(2) In indirect speech
(3) In semi-direct speech
(4) In explanatory situation
(5) In conjecture expression

・モーリスさんはいいスマホが欲しかった
・ジョイも欲しいと言っている 
・オスカーも欲しいそうだ 
・パメラはイヤリングが欲しいんです
・フランシスは腕時計が欲しいらしい

・Mr. Maurice wanted a good phone
・Joy says she wants it, too
・I heard that Oscar wants it, too
・Pamela wants a pair of earrings
・It seems like Francis wants a watch

Noun Expression

Adj Expression

Verb Expression

Special Topics

あいだ

①　Space Between・Among

⚭　N+no + aida/aida ni

Indicates space between two places/things ◦ N to N no aida used for 2 things

・ステレオと本棚の間にテレビを置いた
・古本を買ったらページの間に万円札が挟まっていた
・大阪までの間のどこかで駅弁を買った食べよう

・Between the stereo and the bookshelf, I placed the television
・When I bought a secondhand book, I found a 10 thousand yen bill between the pages
・Between somewhere before Osaka and eat it, I’ll buy lunch at a station

②　Relationship Between・Among

⚭　N+no + aida/aida ni

Indicates relationship between among several people or matters

・最近二人の間はうまくいっていないようだ
・そのホテルは安くて清潔なので旅行者たちの間で人気がある
・二つの事件の間には何か関係があるらしい

・Between the two hasn’t gone well recently, it seems that the relationship
・Since its cheap and clean, Among travelers, it is popular
・Between the two incidents, It seems that there is some relationship

③　Time During・While・Throughout

⚭　Vru/Vteiru/I-Adj/Na-Adj+na/N+no + aida

Indicates space between two places/things ◦ N to N no aida used for 2 things

Indicates relationship between among several people or matters

・彼は会議の間ずっと眠りをしていた
・彼女が戻ってくるまでの間喫茶店で本を読むことにした    
・一生懸命泳いでいる間は嫌なことも忘れてしまう
・子供が小さい間はなかなか夫婦での外出ができなかった    
・智子は大阪にいる間は元気だった    
・私たちがお茶の用意をする間彼らは緊張して一言も喋らずに

・Throughout the meeting, he was dozing off
・While until she returns, I decided to read a book at the coffee shop
・While swimming hard, I can forget about unpleasant things
・When my child was small, I could hardly ever go out with just my husband
・When Tomoko was in Osaka, she was fine
・While we prepared a tea, they were nervous and didn’t say a word

✔︎︎　Correct Usage

・彼は留学していた間スウェーデン人女の子と一緒に生活していた
・私は勉強している間弟は遊んでいた

・While he was studying abroad, he was living together with a Swedish girl
・While I was studying, my younger brother was playing

✖︎　Wrong Usage

・私は勉強している間弟は遊んだ
・While I was studying, my younger brother played

のに

①　Converse Cause Though・Despite・Even though・Inspite of the fact that

⚭　Vru/Vta/I-Adj/I-Adj+katta/Na-Adj+na/N+na + noni

The two expression must be an established fact

Questions, commands, requests, invitations, intentions, desires, suppositions are not used in the second expression

・5月なのに真夏のように暑い
・家が近いのによく遅刻する    
・雨が降っているのに出かけていった    
・真夜中すぎたのにまだ帰ってこない    
・今日は日曜日なのに会社に行くんです
・５月なのになんでこんなに暑いんだろう

・Though it’s May, it is as hot as the middle of the summer
・Though she lives close by, she’s often late
・Despite the rain, I went out
・Though it’s already midnight, he hasn’t come back yet
・Even though today is Sunday, I am going to work
・Even though it’s still May, Why it’s so hot

✖︎　Wrong Usage

・雨が降っているのに出かけなさい
・雨が降っているのに出かけたい    
・雨が降っているのに出かけるだろう

・Even though it’s raining, go out
・Even though it’s raining, I want to go ou
・Even though it’s raining, I’ll probably go out

②　Contrast But・Even though

⚭　Vru/Vta/I-Adj/I-Adj+katta/Na-Adj+na/N+na + noni

Express a contrast between two expression, not a casual relation

Implies that the relation between the two expression deviates from one usually expected and that speaker feels it is unusual

・昨日はいい天気だったのに今日は雨だ
・あの中国人は日本語はあまり上手でないのに英語はうまい    
・お兄さんはよく勉強するのに弟は授業をよくサボる

・It was nice yesterday but today it’s raining
・That Chinese person isn’t very good in Japanese but his English is good
・Even though the oder brother studies had, the younger one often skips class

③　Unexpected But・Even though

⚭　Vru/Vta/I-Adj/I-Adj+katta/Na-Adj+na/N+na + noni

Express that the outcome is different from what was expected or predicted

Expression of expectation, intention, or desire such as:

と思っていた(I thought), つもりだった(I intended), てほしかった(I wanted someone to)

・合格すると思っていたのに、不合格だった
・今晩中に電話するつもりだったのに、うっかり忘れました    
・和子さんには来てほしかったのに来てくれなかった

・I thought I was going to pass, but I didn't
・I was going to call you this evening, but I forgot
・I wanted Kazuko to come, but she didn't

④　RegretShould・Would・Could have

⚭　Vru/Vta/I-Adj/I-Adj+katta/Na-Adj+na/N+na + noni

Express a feeling of regret regarding or the result that differs from is expected

Often used wheb the speaker is critizing or complaining about someone else’s actions

End of a counter-factual conditional sentence

・スピードを出すから事故を起こしたんだ。ゆっくり走れと行っておいたのに
・絶対来るとあんなに固く約束したのに   
・もっと早く出発すればよかったのに    
・あなたも来ればいいのに

・You caused the accident because you were driving too fast. I told you to drive slowly
・I promised so firmly that I would come
・We should have left earlier
・You should have come too

⑤　Logical ArgumentSo

⚭　N+demo.. noni

Expresses the development of a logical argument if it’s is such-and-such,

But that was not result/case for others (could be less or more)

・電気屋でも直せないのにあなたに直せるはずがないじゃないの
・九州でもこんなに寒いのにまして北海道はどんなに寒いだろう   
・こんな簡単な問題学生でも解けるのにどうして間違えたりしたの

・Even an electrician can’t fix it, so how should you able to fix it
・If it’s this cold even in Kyushu, how cold must it be in Hokkaido
・Even an the student could solve this easy problem, so why you got it wrong

⑥　PurposeIn order to・For・To

⚭　Vru + noni

Expresses purpose but with limited expressions comes after like:

使う(use), 必要(necessary), 不可欠(indispensable/essential) and かかる(to indicate how much time is needed)

・この道具はパイプを切るのに使います
・暖房は冬を快適に過ごすのに不可欠です   
・彼を説得するのには時間が必要です    
・このレポートを書くのに一ヶ月かかりました

・This tool is used for cutting pipe
・In order to pass the winter comfortably, (Indoor) heating is essential
・To convince him, time is necessary
・To write this paper, it takes a month

✖︎　Wrong Usage

・留学するのに英語を習っている
・生きるのに食べる

・In order to study abroad, I am learning English
・In order to live, we eat

Ⓡ　Related Expression

keredomo/kedo`But・Although`

・あの中国人は日本語はあまり上手でないけど英語はうまい
・That Chinese person isn’t very good in Japanese but his English is good

temo`Even・Even if`

Comparison:

noni more leans to a factual situation

temo to a hypothetical situation or with less expectations

temo is use with a question-words

・中山さんは本を買っても読みません
・中山さんは本を買うけれど読みません
・中山さんは本を買うのに読みません
・何を食べてもおいしいです

・Even if Nakayama-san buys books, he doesn't read it
・Although Nakayama-san buys books, he doesn't read it    
・Even though Nakayama-san buys books, he doesn't read it    
・No matter what I eat, it taste good

ために

①　Benefit For the sake of・For the benefit of

⚭　N+no + tame(ni)

Follows a noun denoting a person or a thing and in dictates some kind of benefit for it

・こんなにきついことをいうのも君のためだ
・みんなのためを思ってやったことだ
・家族のために働いている
・子供たちのためには自然のある田舎で暮らす方がいい

・It’s for your sake that I say such harsh things
・I did it with everyone’s good in mind
・I’m working for the sake of my family
・For children, It’s better to live in the countryside surrounded by nature

②　Purpose In order to・For・So that

⚭　Vru/N+no + tameni

Expresses purpose but both subject of both clauses must be the same

Express something that can be done by one’s will (volitional)

Express of wanting to become a (profession) (N + ni naru + tameni)

It’s flatter or more neutral

・世界平和のために国際会議が開かれる
・小学校では遺文化理解のために留学生をクラスに招待している
・外国語を習っためにこれまでずいぶん時間とお金を使った    
・入場券を手に入れるために朝早くから並んだ    
・家を買うために朝から晩まで働く    
・小説家になるために本をたくさん読みます

・An international conference for world peace will be held
・The elementary school invited ex-change students for cultural understanding
・I have used a quite a lot of time and money to learn foreign language
・I queued from early morning in order to get an entrance ticket
・I work from dawn to dusk in order to buy a house
・In order to become a novelist, I read a lot of books

✖︎　Wrong Usage

・聞こえるために大きい声で話した
・よく冷えるためにに冷蔵庫に入れておいた

・I spoke loudly for hearing
・I put it in fridge to get cold

Ⓡ　Related Expression

youni`In order to・So that`

・聞こえるように大きい声で話した
・よく冷えるように冷蔵庫に入れておいた

・I spoke loudly in order to be heard
・I put it in the fridge  so that it will get would get cold

ように

①　Purpose In order to・for・So that

⚭　Vru/Vnai + you(ni)

Expresses purpose, both subject of both clauses may differ

Preceding verb uses non-volitional verbs, potential verbs and negative verbs

Non-volitional: 見える(seen), 聞こえる (heard), 分かる(understand), できる(to be able), なる(to become)

Potential: 話せる(can speak), 読める(can read), 書ける(can write), 泳げる(can swim)

Use with a change of state ( I-Adj+ku/Na-Adj+ni + naru + youni)

・後ろの席も人にも聞こえるように大きいな声で話した
・子供にも読めるように名前にふりがなをつけた
・赤ちゃんを起こさないようにそっと布団を出た
・忘れないようにノートにメモしておく
・日本語がよく話せるように毎日練習しています
・日本語が上手になるように毎日勉強しています
・意子が家で仕事ができるように父親は家を改築した

・I said it in a loud voice so that even the people sit at the back could hear
・I put my name in furigana so that eve children would be able to read it
・I got out of the futon softly, so as not to wake the baby
・I will make a note of this so I won’t forget
・So that I can speak Japanese well, I am practicing everyday
・In order to improve my Japanese, I am studying everyday
・The father renovated the house so that his son could work from home

②　Admonition (Please) do・(Please) not do

⚭　Vru/Vnai + you(ni)

Used to give advice to or to remonstrate with the listener

Often use しない, してください, お願いします but can be omitted

Ni in youni is possible to be omitted but

Negative clause (Vnai+youni) it’s unusual

・忘れ物をしないようにしてください
・時間内に終了するようにお願いしなす
・風邪を引かないようにご注意ください
・風邪を引かないようにあたたかくしてね
・私語は慎むようにしなさい
・集合時間は守るように
・授業中はお喋りしなさいように

・Don’t leave anything behind
・For within the allotted time, please finish
・So that you don’t catch a cold, please be careful
・So that you don’t catch a cold, keep warm
・For whispering among your selves, please don’t do ◦ Refrain from whispering
・Keep to the appointed time
・No chatting during class

③　Pray・Hope・Wish Pray・Hope・Wish

⚭　Vru/Vnai/Vpot + you(ni)

Expresses one’s or another’s hopes, prayers and wishes

Often uses 折る(pray), 折念(say a prayer), 念じる(pray silently), 望む(desire),　願う(wish), 希望(hope), 期待(expect) in the latter verb

Often used to bring a speech or letter to a close

・息子が大学に合格できるように神に祈った
・現状がさらに改善されるよう期待している
・新しい年が多きとしでありますよう祈っております
・早く全快なさいますよう祈念いたしております
・どうか合格できますように
・全てがうまくいきますよう
・明日は雨が降り間専ように

・I prayed to god that my son would pass the university exam
・I hope the present situation will improve again
・Wishing you a joyful new year
・I am praying for your swift ad complete recovery
・Wishing you success in the exams
・Hoping alleges well
・Praying that it does not rain tomorrow

④　Simile Like・As

⚭　Vplain/I-Adj/Na-Adj+na/N+no + you(ni)　+　Adj/V

Liken to something

・彼女心は氷のように冷たい
・赤ちゃんは火がついたように泣き出した
・新製品は面白いようによく売れた

・Her heart is as cold as ice
・The baby burst out crying as if she were on fire
・The new product sold like hot cakes

⑤　Example Like・As

⚭　Vplain/I-Adj/Na-Adj+na/N+no + you(ni)　+　Adj/V

Give specific example of a person or a thing

・私が発音するようにあとについて言ってください
・あの人のように英語がペラペラ話せたらいいのに
・先生がおっしゃったようにお伝えしておきました

・Please pronounce it as I do, after me
・I wish I could speak English as. fluently as that person
・I told it as my teacher told it to me

Related Expression

Ⓡ　younaLike・As

⚭　Vplain/I-Adj/Na-Adj+na/N+no + youna　+　N

・あなたのようなご親切な方はなかなか出会えません
・彼はあなたが思っているような人ではない
・彼は城のような家に住んでいる
・6月がきたばかりなのに真夏のような暑さだ

・It’s not very often we meet people as kind as you
・He is not the kind of person you think he is
・He lives In a house that looks like a castle
・June has just arrived and it's as hot as the middle of summer

Ⓡ　youdaApparently・It seems that・Looks like

⚭　Vplain/I-Adj/Na-Adj+na/N+no + youda

Speaker makes conjecture based on what is felt or observed

・この雪はまるで綿のようです
・あれ、この牛乳、ちょっと悪くなっているようです
・この風邪薬を飲むとどうも眠くなるようだ
・玄関のベルが鳴ったようだよ
・森さんは今日元気がないようでした
・この酒は水のようだ
・ここは昔学校だったようだ

・This snow looks like cotton
・Oh, this milk seems to have gone a bit bad
・This cold medicine seems to make me sleepy
・Looks like the doorbell rang
・Mr. Mori did not look well today
・This sake is like water
・It seems that this palce used to be a school

Ⓡ　youni naruget to a point・reach to a point where・come to ・started to

⚭　Vru/Vnai/Vpot + youni naru

⚭　Vnai → Vnaku + naru

Abilities, conditions, or customs change

When indicating prior state no longer exists

Not appended to verbs expressing change

・日本語が話せるようになりました
・眼鏡をかければ、黒板の字が見えるようになります
・赤ちゃんはずいぶん活発に動くようになりました
・隣の子供最近きちんと挨拶するようになった
・注意したら文句を言わないようになった
・最近、日本の食事に慣れて、さしみが食べられるようになりました
・来月からこの駅にも急行が止まるようになります
・母もやっとパソコンが使えるようになって、よろこんでいる
・もうすぐ面白さが分かるようになりますよ
・この道は今通れないようになっている
・工事が始まって、あの道は通れなくなりました
・最近、あまり勉強しないから、授業がわからなくなりました

・I have become able speak Japanese
・If I wear glasses, I can be able to see the writing on the blackboard
・The baby has become much more active
・The neighbour's child has recently begun make a proper greeting
・After I had a word, he stopped complaining
・I have recently become accustomed to Japanese food and can now eat sashimi!
・Express trains will be stopping at this station from next month
・My mother is happy to finally be able to use a computer
・You'll start to see the fun in it soon!
・This road is now impassable
・Construction work has started and that road is no longer passable
・I don't study much these days, so I don't understand the lessons anymore

Ⓡ　youni surumake a point of doing・do in such away that・to try to, make sure to

⚭　Vru/Vnai/Vpot + youni suru

Make an efforts with the aim of or aim to to see to it that an action or situation occurs

Habitual attitude toward something

・私は肉を小さく切って、子供にも食べられるようにした
・大きな活字を使い、老人にも読みやすいようになる
・できるだけ英会おテレビを見るようにしている
・油ものは食べないようにしている
・できるだけ日本語で話すようにしています
・わからないことは先生にいくようにしている
・ジョンはメアリが行けるようにした
・ジョンわ行けるようにした
・成績がよくなるようにした
・人に会うときは、約束の時間を守るようにしましょう
・パソコンは長い時間、続けてしないようにしています
・わたしは健康のために、毎晩、1 時間ぐらい歩くようにしている

・I cut the meat into small pieces so that even the children could eat it
・We use large print so that it's easy for the elderly to read
・I try to watch as much Eikaiwa TV as possible
・I try not to eat fried foods
・I try to speak in Japanese as much as possible
・I make a point of asking my teacher about things I don't understand
・John made sure that Mary could go
・John made it possible for him to go
・I made sure my grades were good
・When you meet people, try to keep your appointments
・I try not to use the computer for long periods of time
・I try to walk for about an hour every evening to keep fit

という

General Concept

toiu is a added to link an external relative clause which provides information about a noun.

① Never take toiu with nouns expressing feelings (sound, smell, pain) or those perceive through senses (photo, music)

・腐った魚の匂いがひどいです
・ビートの強い音楽が好きだ

・The smell of rotten fish is disgusting
・I like music with a strong beat

② Always take toiu with abstract concepts expressing thoughts or assertions (rumor, fact/thing, opinion, reason, thought)

・政府が悪いという意見はありますか
・彼らがラスベガで結婚したいってうわさは本当かな？

・Is your opinion that the government is bad?
・Is the rumor that they want to get married in Las Vegas true?

③ In other cases or events like work or incident, It doesn’t really matter whether you use toiu or not

・漫画を翻訳する(って)仕事は楽しい
・男が死んだ(という)事件があった

・The job of translating manga is fun
・There was an incident in which a man died

Usage

①　Naming Called・Named

⚭　N1 + toiu + N2

Specify the name of second nominal (N2)

・エビスという小さい町だった
・むかしむかし、桃太郎という男の子がいました
・雪国という小説を読んだ
・山口県の萩という所へ行ってきました

・It was a small town called Ebisu
・Once upon a time, there was a boy called Momotaro
・I read a novel called Snow Country
・I went to a place called Hagi in Yamaguchi prefecture

②　Emphasis

⚭　N　+ toiu + N

Empasizing the nominal by mentioning twice

・道路という道路は車であふれていた
・家という家は飾りをいっぱいつけて独立の喜びをあらわしていた
・ビルの窓という窓に人の顔が見えた
・会場を出てくる選手の顔という顔に満足感がみちあふれていた

・The road that was full of cars
・The house that was full of decorations to show the joy of independence
・The window of the building that has face in it
・The face of each and every player leaving the venue was filled with satisfaction

③　Direct & Indirect Speech Says・Saying・Said

⚭　Sentence + toiu

Quoting or reporting what other person says, saying or said

Direct

・彼女は「いいお天気だね」と言いました
・彼女は「これ、おいしい」と言いました
・彼女は「お腹がすいた」と言いました
・彼女は「今、すごく忙しいです」と言った

・She said, "The weather is nice!"
・She said, "This is delicious!"
・She said, "I'm hungry!"
・She said, "I'm very busy right now"

Indirect

・彼女はいいお天気だねと言いました
・彼女はこれ、おいしいと言いました
・雪国という小説を読んだ
・彼女は今、すごく忙しいですと言った

・She said (that) the weather was nice
・She said (that) it was delicious
・She said (that) she was hungry
・She said (that) she was very busy right now

④　Content that

⚭　Sentence + toiu + N

Describes the content of the nominal or what it does represents

Example of nominals:

talk 話, rumor うわさ, talk/rumor 評判, regulation 規則 , article 記事 , info 情報
reason 理由, fact こと, opinion 意見 , message 連絡, notice しらせ, thought 考え

・母から来月日本へ来るという手紙が来ました
・兄から結婚するという知らせが来た
・日本では少子化がもっと進むだろうという記事を読んだ
・この学校には、生徒は髪を染めてはいけないっていう規則があるんだ
・この会社には、仕事は5時までだという規則がる
・山田さんは自分で画家だといってるが、本当は会社経営者だといううわさが流れている
・彼女の到着が一日遅れるという連絡が入った

・My mother has written to say she is coming to Japan next month
・I got the news from my brother that he was getting married
・I read an article that the birthrate will be even lower in Japan
・There's a rule in this school that students can't dye their hair
・There is a rule in this company that you have to work until 5 o'clock
・Mr. Yamada says he's an artist, but there are rumours that he's really a company manager 
・A message came that she would be arriving a day late

なんか

You can replace nanka with nante The meaning and nuances are pretty exactly the same with slight difference

なんか

① tatoeba

When you are suggesting something ◦ How about this

・この間オープンしたイタリアンなんかどう
・この帽子なんかどう

・How about the Italian restaurant that opened recently?
・How about this hat?

②　keishi

When you are disregards something ◦ Look down on something

・学校なんか行きたくない
・勉強なんかしたくない
・帽子なんかかぶるかな？

・I don't want to go to school
・I don't want to study
・Do you think he'll wear a hat?

③ kenson

Humility ◦ Modesty

・私の日本語なんかまだまだですよ
・だから私なんかが選ぶよりミシェルが選んだ方がいいよ

・My Japanese is not good enough
・So it's better for Michelle to choose than for me to choose

なんて

④　odoroki ◦ kandou

When you are surprised ◦ Excitement ◦ Impressed with a fact

・毎日ステーキを食べるなんてすごいお金持ちなんだね
・毎日ランニングなんて偉いね
・なんて美味しそうなケーキだろう
・今日はなんて良い1日だろう
・わぁ！なんて豪華なランチだろう
・え！3000円なんて高すぎでしょ
・私なんてミシェルと違って貧乏なんだから

・You must be very rich to eat steak every day!
・Good on you for running every day!
・What a delicious looking cake!
・What a good day!
・Wow! What a sumptuous lunch!
・What! 3000 yen is too much!
・I'm not like Michelle, I'm poor!

Vocabulary

Basic

Basic Expression

Basic Words

Daily Japanese

Introduction

Self Introduction

🅼 はじめまして。私の名前はジョンです
🅼 アメリカから来ました
🅼 旅行会社です
🅼 よろしくお願いします

🅼 Nice to meet you. My name is John　
🅼 I came from America
🅼 I am a travel agent
🅼 Glad to meet you all

Meeting a person for the first time

🅼 はじめまして。私はジョンです。よろしくお願いします
🅵 はじめまして。りなと申します。こちらこそ。よろしくお願いします

🅼 How do you do. I am John. Nice to meet you　
🅵 How do you do. I am Rina. Nice to meet you too..

Small talk during the first meeting

🅼 りなさん、ご出身はどこですか　
🅵 ロンドンです。ジョンさんは？
🅼 シカゴです。学生ですか、もう働いていますか　
🅵 学生です。ジョンさんは？
🅼 働いています。旅行会社に勤めています

🅼 Rina-san, Where are you from?　
🅵 I am from London. How about John-san?
🅼 I am from Chicago. Are a student or working already?　
🅵 I am a student. How about John-san?
🅼 I am working. I work at a travel agency

More information during the first meeting

🆂 私は会社員です   
🆂 僕は今年で23です
🆂 私は大学４年生です
🆂 私の趣味は世界中を旅することです

🆂 I'm an office worker     
🆂 I'll be 23 this year    
🆂 I'm in my fourth year of universitygg
🆂 My hobby is travelling around the world

Restaurant

Reservation

🆃 はい、レストランみやこでございます　
🅲 あのう、予約お願いしたいんですが..
🆃 かしこまりました。いつの予約ですか
🅲 20日の7時に2名でお願いします

🆃 Hello, this is Miyako restaurant　
🅲 Uhmm, I would like to make a reservation
🆃 Most certainly, When would you like to make a reservation?
🅲 On the 20th, at 7 o'clock for 2 people please

Technical

Electricity

Electronics

Exam Guide

Reading

Grammar

Listening

Questions

N5

Words

N5

N4

N3

N2

N1

Random

Learning Strategy

Details

Goal:
Be around at Intermediate level in a year

Strategy:
①. Kanji and Vocabulary with minimum grammar points but with some amount of listening - First 6 months
②. Grammar, Reading and Listening - Next 4 months
③. General review and catch up - Last 2 months

Schedule:
5 days - Kanji, Words mining and Site building
2 days - Review and Site building

①. Kanji and Vocabulary

1. Learn 1000++ Kanji

Kanshudo Kanji Collection by Usefulness Level - Up to level 4
Intermediate Book for Kanji
Additional Kanji’s from other resources

2. Learn 5000++ Vocabulary

Kanshudo Words Collection by Usefulness Level - Up to level 4
Learn words by different categories
- Everyday Japanese
- Casual Japanese thru Social Media (YT, Podcast, etc..)

3. Online Mining

Word variability and diversity
Casual and Practical Expressions

4. Site Building

Use this platform to organize my notes

Kanji & Vocabulary

Kanji

Kanji 1000++

Intermediate Kanji

More Kanji

Words & Phrases

Vocabulary 5000++

Download:
Level1:500 ❊ Level2:1500 ❊ Level3:3000 ❊ Level4:5000 ❊

Intermediate

Download:
Intermediate Words ❊

Everyday Japanese

Work

Time

Typ-Day

Online Mining

Words & Expressions

Words/Expressions

Sentence Mining

Sentences/Phrases/Clauses

Listening

Reading

Fun Corner

英語-日本語

Simple Questions

How can I get to Shinjuku?

新宿への行き方を教えてください
新宿へはどうやって行けばいいですか？
新宿へはどうやって行けばいいのですか？　　　　
新宿への行き方は？　　

Who should I ask?　　

誰に聞けばいいの？　　
誰に聞けばいいのか？　　
誰に頼めばいいのですか？　　
誰に聞けばいいのでしょうか？　　　

What time should I come?

何時に行けばいいですか？
何時に来ればいいの？
何時に来ればいいのか？　

How about a cup of coffee?

コーヒーでも飲みませんか？
コーヒーはいかがですか？
コーヒーはどうですか？　　

What kind of person is your type?

あなたのタイプはどんな人ですか？
あなたのタイプはどんな人？
どんな人がタイプですか？
どんな人がタイプなの？　　　　

Excuse me, I want to order

すいません、注文したい
すいません、注文したいです
すいません、注文したいんですが
すいません、注文したいのですが
すいません、注文したいんですけど

I would like to order please

注文したいのですが
注文したいと思います
注文したいのですが、お願いします

Can I have the bill, please?

お会計をお願いします
お会計をお願いできますか？
お勘定お願いします
請求書をいただけますか？

Can you take a picture of me please?

私の写真を撮ってくれませんか
私の写真を撮ってもらえますか
私の写真を撮ってくれません？

Could I have you to take a picture of me please?

私の写真を撮ってもらえませんか
私の写真を撮っていただけますか

Can I leave my luggage here for a while

荷物を一時的に預けることはできますか？
荷物を一時的に預けることができますか？

I will pick it up this afternoon

今日の午後に取りに行きます
今日の午後に取りに行く予定です

I will come back and pick it up at around 3:00pm today

今日の午後3時頃に取りに来ます
今日の午後3時頃に引き取りに来ます
今日の午後3時頃に取りに来る予定です
今日の午後3時頃に引き取りに来る予定です

ϞϞ(๑⚈ ․̫ ⚈๑)∩

日本語

Introduction

Foreword

Disclaimer

Version

Scripts

Hiragana

Katakana

Kanji

Level 1

Level 2

Level 3

Level 4

Level 5

Levels 1-5

Random-w

W/Meaning

W/Reading

W/Reading & Meaning

Words-Only

Meaning-Only

Reading-Only

Structure

Structure

Core

Basic

B describes the action/state of A

B describes A

B describes A

B defines/identifies/describes A

‘da/desu’ - copula

Compound

⚭ Sentence(I-Adj-Ending) + kute + Sentence

⚭ Sentence(Na-Adj-Ending) + de + Sentence

⚭ Sentence(Noun-Ending) + de + Sentence

⚭ Sentence(Vnoun-base-Ending) + Sentence

⚭ Sentence(Vte-Ending) + Sentence

⚭ Sentence(V/I-Adj/(N/Na-Adj+Cop)-Ending) + shi + Sentence

‘shi’ particle - connects one or multiple reasons but not naming all of it

⚭ Sentence + ga + Sentence

⚭ Sentence + kedo + Sentence

⚭ Sentence + keredomo + Sentence

Complex

⚭ Relative Clause + Noun

⚭ Noun/Sentence + toiu + Noun

⚭ Noun/Verb + Compound Particle + Noun

⚭ Sentence + no/koto

⚭ Sentence + ka + ..

⚭ Sentence + you ni/etc

Adverbial forms of Auxiliary Adjectives

⚭ Sentence + toiu

⚭ Noun/Verb + ni tsurete/etc

⚭ Sentence + temo/tara/toki ni/tame ni/etc

Represent such things as condition, time, reason, purpose and manner

Elements

Intial Carriage

Connectives

Types

Examples

Adverbial Expressions

as usual ◦ as always

by any means ◦ reason

after all ◦ in the end

of course

perhaps ◦ it may be that

how ◦ what (exclamatory)

indeed ◦ that’s right

kindly ◦ with much effort

anyway

for now ◦ fort the time being ◦ first of all ◦ at once

kindly ◦ especially

after all

as expected

Sentential Topic

Sentence Initial Dependent Clause

Main Carriage

Subject

Object

Direct object

Indirect object

⚭　Sentence(I-Adj-Ending) + kute + Sentence

⚭　Sentence(Na-Adj-Ending) + de + Sentence

⚭　Sentence(Noun-Ending) + de + Sentence

⚭　Sentence(Vnoun-base-Ending) + Sentence

⚭　Sentence(Vte-Ending) + Sentence

⚭　Sentence(V/I-Adj/(N/Na-Adj+Cop)-Ending) + shi + Sentence

⚭　Sentence + ga + Sentence

⚭　Sentence + kedo + Sentence

⚭　Sentence + keredomo + Sentence

⚭　Relative Clause + Noun

⚭　Noun/Sentence + toiu + Noun

⚭　Noun/Verb + Compound Particle + Noun

⚭　Sentence + no/koto

⚭　Sentence + ka + ..

⚭　Sentence + you ni/etc

⚭　Sentence + toiu

⚭　Noun/Verb + ni tsurete/etc

⚭　Sentence + temo/tara/toki ni/tame ni/etc

⚭　kono/sono/ano/dono + Noun → this/that/which Noun

⚭　kouiu/souiu/auiu/douiu + Noun → this/that/what kind of Noun

⚭　konna/sonna/anna/donna + Noun → this/that/what kind of Noun

⚭　arayuru + Noun → every possible Noun

⚭　iwayuru + Noun → so-called Noun

⚭　onaji + Noun → the same Noun

⚭　saru + Noun → the past/last Noun

⚭　Noun1 + no + Noun2 → Noun1’s Noun2/Noun2 of Noun1

⚭　watashi/boku/ore + no + Noun → my Noun

⚭　watashitachi + no + Noun → our Noun

⚭　anata/kimi + no + Noun → your Noun

⚭　I-Adjective + Noun

⚭　Na-Adjective + na + Noun

⚭　Converted-Na-Adjective + (na) + Noun

⚭　No-Adjective + no + Noun

⚭　No-Adjective + no + Noun

⚭　Number + Counter + no + Noun

⚭　Adverb-te + no + Noun

⚭　Adverb + (to) + shita + Noun

⚭　Onomatope + no/na + Noun

⚭　Noun + Particle + no + Noun

⚭　Noun + ga/no + Adjective/Verb + Noun

⚭　Vta + Noun

⚭　Noun/Verb + Compound Particle + Noun

⚭　Clause-te + no + Noun

⚭　Noun/Sentence + toiu + Noun → Noun named/called/that is Noun/Sentence

⚭　Sentence + koto/no

⚭　Sentence + ka

⚭　noun to noun (to) → Noun and Noun

⚭　noun ya noun (ya) → Noun, Noun among others

⚭　noun, noun, noun nado → Noun, Noun, Noun and etc

⚭　noun toka noun toka → Noun, Noun and so on

⚭　noun ka noun → Noun or Noun

⚭　noun, noun matawa noun→ Noun, Noun or Noun